Leviathan
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During the upheaval of the English Civil War in the seventeenth century, political philosopher Thomas Hobbes composed his masterwork, Leviathan. It was first published in 1651, between the trial and execution of King Charles I and the creation of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. In his book, Hobbes argued that a strong and undivided central government was necessary to maintain societal order. By accepting the rule of a sovereign authority figure—which Hobbes called the "Leviathan" after the biblical sea monster—humans could avoid being ruled instead by self-interest and fear, and so escape humankind's natural state of war and violence. This is an unabridged version of Hobbes's most famous philosophical text, which established social contract theory and remained influential in political philosophy for centuries.
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was one of the founding fathers of modern philosophy. An Englishman, Hobbes was heavily influenced by his country's civil war and wrote his preeminent work, Leviathan, about the relationship between the individual and the government during that period. Hobbes was a scholar, phauthoilosopher, and the author of several works on political and religious philosophy.
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Reviews for Leviathan
693 ratings16 reviews
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5I had a bit of trouble reading this book because of the archaic language. I did glean quite a bit of good info from it regarding Hobbes theories on religion, morality, and politics. It's a must read, but take your time.
- Rating: 2 out of 5 stars2/5A necessary but unpleasant read. The dilated statist mind has a tentative justification here.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5A meaningful look into the thoughts and context of the man who gave us the phrase that life is hard brutish and short.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Not to sound too flippant, but I think this book is probably worth reading solely for exceprts such as these:"The Papacy, is no other, than the Ghost of the deceased Romane Empire, sitting crowned upon the grave thereof...""The Ecclesiastiques are the Spirituall men, and Ghostly Fathers. The Fairies are Spirits, and Ghosts. Fairies and Ghosts inhabite Darknesse, Solitudes, and Graves. The Ecclesiastiques walke in Obscurity of Doctrine, in Monasteries, Churches, and Churchyards."Both from The Kingdome of Darknesse
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Hobbe's work is more completely titled "The Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil." There is a lot of depth in this work and my weak attempt here is meant more to reinforce the reading within my own mind than to actually convey the entire meaning of Hobbe's great work. Hobbes is among the first in a series of thinkers to contemplate the meaning of life, politics, religion, and humanity in order to put them into some logical context. He does a perfect job of building small parts of his argument and then combining them to make a completely powerful major point. The natural role of the sovereign, obedience to the sovereign, and the endorsement of all of this by God are principal points in Hobbes argument. Later thinkers such as Locke and Rouseau later allowed for the citizenry to break the contract with the sovereign but Hobbes does not allow for that in any way. Much of Hobbe's logic is also based on the scientific discoveries taking place during the time. As part of his debunking other philosophies, he mentions the assertion by Aristotle that all things emit a "visible species," which was then known to be untrue.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5I first read this as an undergraduate in political science, then we read it again in a second social philosophy course (where a chapter had been assigned for my first social philosophy course).
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Most of the bulk of The Leviathan is spent slowly and methodically building and explaining Hobbes' cynical opinion of the state of nature. This is partially why the Leviathan is antiquated today, because we don't deal with states of nature, nobody except anarchists deny the need for government. However in terms of a political science treatise it's effective in establishing the roots and general purpose of government. Whereas The Prince reads as an advisory manual for would-be Kings and is therefore completely anachronistic, The Leviathan is still an effective justification for government. If you already buy that the state of nature is an unacceptable way to live, skip the first (and larger) part of the Leviathan and simply read Hobbes' solution to the problem. Must-have for political scientists.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5"He that is to govern a whole Nation, must read in himself, not this, or that particular man; but Man-kind: which though it be hard to do, harder than to learn any Language, or Science; yet when I shall have set down my own reading orderly, and perspicuously, the pains left another, will be onely to consider if he also find not the same in himself."
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5This is not an easy recreational read, but there is much to enjoy. Hobbes writing is wonderful - short and direct, he makes his arguments sing! Strong and opinionated - he must have been wonderful company in real life. But also an arch old conservative - we find him arguing in the end of Part 2 that the remedy for discontent with the political order is that the people should be taught to not want change!Parts of the book are just a joy to read - Chapter 13 on people living in a "state of nature", i.e. outside of a political commonwealth, is short, sharp and persuasive. This is also the source of the famous quote of life outside a commonwealth as "solitary, poor nasty, brutish and short". But in others he deploys his skills to argue for the indefensible: he suggests that the people have a covenant with their monarch, but not the other way round, and even, remarkably, that the people are authors of the actions of a monarch, and thus have no cause for complaint at any action taken by the monarch!I read an edition with current spelling, but I also referred to a text of the original. I found it amazing that the English in use in 1651 is so accessible today, whereas Shakespeare, from two generations earlier, is at times a struggle. Of course, one is written in academic terms while the other is vernacular, but it is striking how stable the language has become over 350 years.Read August 2014.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5One of the best political treatises ever written. Very lucid arguments to justify an all-powerful state. I loved reading this book again.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5Actually, Hobbes' words were 'nasty, brutish, and short.' Leviathan is a great book, but what I find amazing about it is not Hobbes' insights into humans or politics-the continuation of our reliance upon Hobbes to explain state power seems much more the point. Hobbes was one of the first to understand fear as the basis for government, and this has remained, unfortunately, a prevalent view. Read this book, but critically and as a historically great work.
- Rating: 4 out of 5 stars4/5Listened to this in audio form and found it a little hard to follow in places.
- Rating: 3 out of 5 stars3/5This book was revolutionary for its time but doesn't hold up well to modern-day philosophical scrutiny. Convinced that men were by nature evil, Hobbes argued that the best system of government was a benevolent dictator backed by a powerful army but he doesn't seem to recognize that power corrupts and benevolent dictators are hard to come by.
- Rating: 5 out of 5 stars5/5My reactions to reading this book in 1994. It took almost two months to plow through this book, but I’m not sorry I did. Like most “great books”, the things I heard about it were rather simplistic and one-faceted. The actual book was more complex than I expected. I expected a detailed argument in favor of absolute rule, justified by divine right, by a king. Like some of the writings of Cicero, Hobbes, writing at the time of the political upheaval of the English Civil War (Cicero also wrote in a time of civil war), displays a strong desire for strong government to bring about tranquility. But Hobbes is up to much more than just an essay on why the Stuarts should have absolute power. As Oakeshott says in his introduction, Hobbes was fascinated by geometry and it shows in the first part – “Of Man” – in which he develops a rather medieaval (in the sense of human consciousness being described as a series of internal “motions” caused by external objects) theory of psychology. Hobbes, in a style reminescent of a geometrical proof, starts out by defining certain human traits and emotions then constructs, using these definitions, theorems of human psychology. Hobbes view of man is realistic. He sees him as neither purely a creature of emotion (though he dedicates much time to exploring this aspect of humanity) or reason. He sees wisdom and rationality arising from human attempts to predict the future based on experience. The book ends with some surly, sarcastic – but convincing – attacks on key elements of Catholic theology – the immortal soul, eternal torment in hell, purgatory. There is a lot of emphasis on the importance of ghosts – which Hobbes briefly deals with along with demon possession – as pertaining to purgatory, and the arguments about both that were going on at this time, and the trinity. He also takes a shot at the idea of the temporal rule of the Catholic Church over sovereigns. (Some of this is covered under the last section called “Of the Kingdom of Darkness”.) Still, much of the book is Hobbes’ argument not only for an absolute sovereign (whether a king – which he prefers – or committee or assembly) but an absolute theocracy with religion and politics absolutely melded. Hobbes, according to the introduction, gets accussed of immorality. I don’t think Hobbes was amoral or immoral but his philosophy is extremely pragmatic. Hobbes, as the starting point of his philosophy (and this is extended, by contract, to the Leviathan of the state), sees a man as having the right to whatever he desires. The problem – of course – is that a man does not exist, mankind does and each man competes with the other for “honor, riches, and authority”. Hobbes says that man’s life, in a state of nature without government, is, to use his most famous phrase “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”. That in nature every man is at war with every other man, that no society, no art, no science, no letters exist, only continual fear. As Hobbes rightly notes, this state of anarchy is so intolerable that even the most primitive tribe has some form of government. However, I think there are a couple of minor flaws to his vision of man’s competition. First, each person has different notions of “honor, riches, and authority”, each niche, each subtle variation in the term “riches”, “honor”, and “authority” can be occuppied by a different person. Second, Hobbes seems to postulate a zero-sum society where one person’s gain is another’s loss. This flies in the face of economic history. Still, Hobbes’ point, that commerce, trade, and economic security can’t exist in such conditions, is true. Hobbes’ ultimate statement – that all religious and political authority must be invested in the Leviathan (the artificial body of the state with the government as its head) to prevent this natural state of war and foster civilization – is understandable given the civil and religious conflicts of English society at the time. However, Hobbes bluntly reaches several conclusions that would make a libertarian wince. Subjects have no right to attempt changing their government. The sovereign cannot forfeit his power. The laws of the commonwealth do not apply to the sovereign. Dissent is not allowed. The sovereign’s power is not limited. Hobbes hates separation of powers too. Hobbes acknowledges that this is a recipe for tyranny. Hobbes even denies the right of dissent based on religious conscience. He demands the outward form of obedience to whatever the sovereign mandates religiously. You can believe, according to him, whatever you want, and God will judge you accordingly, but even God expects absolute obedience. Hobbes says that government wanting power is always much worse than too much power. He blithely adds that the government is always concerned with its subjects' welfare because it is a component of their welfare. He is also quaintly naïve when he says that the sovereign will grant his subjects much freedom because there are many areas he will not seek to regulate. Obviously, he didn’t forsee the regulatory zeal of the modern Leviathan. Still, Hobbes (at least in my very uneducated opinion) seems to straddle not only an authoritarian tradition but a libertarian one. He says that “force and fraud” are the cardinal virtues of war. Presumably that includes the war of man with every other man that occurs in nature. Government is instituted to eliminate this warfare. Interestingly, libertarians view government’s sole legitimate function as preventing “force and fraud”. In other words, like Hobbes, they wish to quell warfare in the state of nature. Libertarians base much of their philosophy on the use of contracts, and Hobbes bases his philosophy on that too. The subject, to avoid the unpleasant state of man in nature, voluntarily gives up his rights and will to a sovereign that promises security from violence. Much of the book is a detailed explication of this idea in its various political and religious implications. However, though Hobbes is about as an extreme advocate of governmental power as there is, he says a subject can – with justice (which, in Hobbes’ terms, means without violating the contract the subject forms with his sovereign) – resist a sovereign’s attempt to kill him. The whole point of the contract, Hobbes argues, is for the subject to avoid death. A subject can also justly refuse to kill himself, testify against themselves, or defend their life (even if they are criminals who have committed an unjust act the state seeks to punish) against the sovereign. While Hobbes views every action of the sovereign authorized by the subject via contract to get security, he points out that logically the contract is void when the subject’s life is at stake.
- Rating: 3 out of 5 stars3/5Vooral stuk over de mens is interessant: voor het eerst systematische ontleding van het menselijk functioneren, aanzet tot kennisleerStaatsleer: duidelijk absolutistisch, niet toevallig in parijs geschreven ten tijde van Louis XIV, wel op het einde lichte relativering. Natuurtoestand is goed als concept, maar te theoretisch om er een hele staatsleer uit te kunnen afleiden. Atheïsme: duidelijk niet, wel materialistische formulering met ruimte voor wonderen en god.
- Rating: 3 out of 5 stars3/5In the 1640s, Europe was littered with wars, most of them pertinent to who ought to be in charge. The continent saw the last decade of the Thirty Years’ War, whose major impacts were reaffirming state sovereignty and killing an unprecedented number of people. Britain was itself embroiled in an on-and-off civil war, intending to settle a more philosophical debate over whether the king was answerable to parliament or vice versa; a substantial number of Britons died in the process. It was with this background that Thomas Hobbes, a royalist safely living in Paris, wrote his seminal work Leviathan.Named for a (presumably) mythical sea beast, the work considers the nature of man, the state, their interactions with faith, and knowledge. Human thought, he argues, comes in several flavours: Sense, Imagination (or, decaying sense), Reason, and Science. People combine these in order that they might “obtain some future apparent good,” and he describes a variety of acts that build (or destroy) honour, and therefore reputation, and therefore power in people; and people seek power ad infinitum. There’s just one problem with that desire: the natural condition is one of perpetual war of all versus all; referencing Thucydides, he believes that life on its own is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Therefore, sensing that to be unpleasant, peoples came together to create a “commonwealth,” which can (through fear of punishment) compel good behaviour – acquiescence to the laws of nature, adherence to contracts, etc. Considering three varieties of commonwealth – Monarchy, Democracy, and Aristocracy – he finds the former alone has the capacity to make conclusive, learned, reasoned, decisions; and therefore despite its “inconveniences” is far superior.To a large extent, however, this ‘finding’ isn’t so much reasoned as empirical; nearly any observer, in the same context, would have come to the same conclusion. Not only was the entire known world governed by a monarch of one form or another, but historical attempts to create either democratic or aristocratic governments had all met failure. Famously, democratic Athens was conquered by monarchic Sparta; the Roman Republic dissolved into the Roman Empire. As Hobbes was writing, the Polish sejm (an aristocratic assembly) had become so ineffective that Poland was conquered by its neighbours. And, most immediately to Hobbes, the English Parliament, having won the civil war, was disintegrating in to factionalism.One would be remiss, however, to overlook one additional factor: His exile notwithstanding, Hobbes was on the king’s payroll in the 1640s, and worked directly with the future King Charles II. His salary beholden to a strong believer in the divine right of kings, any argument against monarchical supremacy – especially in light of the parliamentary uprising – could come with dire economic consequences. “Taking of the sword out of the hand of the sovereign” is “contrary to the peace and safety of the people.” Yet in the centuries since, it’s been shown that assemblies – whether of the entire population or a subset of it – can govern effectively and sustainably. Less than a decade after Hobbes’ death, the Glorious Revolution made England a constitutional monarchy; a century after that, a collective of wayward colonies shucked even the pretense of the crown, and has persisted for centuries even in the face of war, civil strife, and disagreement. Meanwhile, ‘monarchically’ ruled countries have risen and fallen around the world.Hobbes believes that the human mind is incapable of understanding infinity; for this reason, he argues, we have anthropomorphized God as a vehicle with which to conceptualize that which we cannot… and in fact states that presuming the whereabouts of God is idolatrous (since idols are finite and God is not). He points out that God can speak to mankind either directly or indirectly (i.e. through prophets); but in the latter case, how does one distinguish a prophet from a liar? Or from misinterpreting the scriptures?It seems that his answer neglects to include a useful answer (and, to be fair, it’s no easy task) – but the important point is to establish that laws temporal and spiritual must be enforced by the sovereign to ensure the success of the commonwealth. He delicately implies that the pope’s authority is derived from a misinterpretation of scripture – Charles I was protestant, after all, and Hobbes (like the contemporaneous Treaty of Westphalia) obligingly grants the sovereign power over religious activity. At the same time, though, his views on religion were somewhat unorthodox, and later accusations of heresy would inhibit publication of his later works.Notwithstanding that his driving interest in Leviathan was relatively immediate, Hobbes’ view of man and of government would come to influence the Continental Congress. Both the Declaration of Independence (1776) and the Constitution (1789) expressly enumerate the purpose of government and stress the importance of establishing and maintaining peace. The responsibilities accorded to governments are, with a few exceptions, not far removed from the rights of sovereigns enumerated; although his positions supporting governmental infallibility, and opposing free expression and separation of powers were rejected.It seems clear that Hobbes isn’t so much a philosopher or thinker, as he is an observer of history and current affairs. Any Englishman, writing a comprehensive book on government in the 1640s, could reasonably be expected to have emphasized the same points and arrived at the same conclusions. This does not, however, render the text meaningless. On the contrary, it provides a unique perspective on how government itself was viewed at a pivotal moment in British history – perhaps the first moment that people much thought about it. (Most citizens, after all, will not much concern themselves over whether this or that nobleman is the king.)Hobbes’ desire to affiliate with the ‘winning side’ in the English Civil War was ultimately successful; the Cromwell regime judged him to be of no threat (perhaps because he cleverly defined ‘monarchy’ in such a way to include the new Lord Protector), and the restored Charles II later granted him a pension. But his wish to shape politics failed. The crown answered to Parliament after 1688, and the American Declaration of Independence made demands on the king that would have been unthinkable a century before. By inspiring, even in a few, the idea that government – a finite entity – could be defined, Leviathan was paramount to the development of modern political existence.
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Leviathan - Thomas Hobbes
Written during the English Civil War and published in 1651, political philosopher Thomas Hobbes’s text advocates for a government ruled by powerful sovereign—which Hobbes called the Leviathan
after the biblical sea monster. His social contract theory remained influential for centuries. The text is in the public domain. This First Avenue Classics™ version has placed the text into a new design to make this book appealing and easier to read in both digital and paperback formats. The eBook contains a hyperlinked Table of Contents for navigation. The First Avenue Classics™ version is unabridged and has been proofed for formatting errors. Errors and alternate spellings found in the original book have not been changed.
Copyright © 2018 by Lerner Publishing Group, Inc.
All rights reserved. International copyright secured. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the prior written permission of Lerner Publishing Group, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hobbes, Thomas, 1588-1679, author.
Title: Leviathan / by Thomas Hobbes.
Description: Minneapolis, Minnesota : First Avenue Editions, [2018] | Series: First Avenue Classics | Audience: Ages: 13-18. | Audience: Grades: 9 to 12.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017009078 (print) | LCCN 2017031508 (ebook) | ISBN 9781512486193 (eb pdf) | ISBN 9781512486094 (paperback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Political science—Early works to 1800. | State, The.
Classification: LCC JC153 (ebook) | LCC JC153 .H65 2018 (print) | DDC 320.1—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017009078
Manufactured in the United States of America
1-43419-33192-8/24/2017
9781541518421 ePub
9781541518438 mobi
9781541518445 ePub
Table of Contents
The Introduction
PART 1: Of Man
I: Of Sense
II: Of Imagination
Memory
Dreams
Apparitions or Visions
Understanding
III: Of the Consequence or Trayne of Imaginations
Trayne of Thoughts Unguided
Trayne of Thoughts Regulated
Remembrance
Prudence
Signes
Conjecture of the Time Past
IV: Of Speech
Originall of Speech
The Use of Speech
Abuses of Speech
Names Proper & Common Universall
Subject to Names
Use of Names Positive
Negative Names with Their Uses
Words Insignificant
Understanding
Inconstant Names
V: Of Reason, and Science
Reason What It Is
Reason Defined
Right Reason Where
The Use of Reason
Of Error and Absurdity
Causes of Absurditie
Science
Prudence & Sapience, with Their Difference
Signes of Science
VI: Of the Interiour Beginnings of Voluntary Motions
Motion Vitall and Animal
Endeavour; Appetite; Desire; Hunger; Thirst; Aversion
Contempt
Good Evill
Pulchrum Turpe; Delightfull Profitable; Unpleasant Unprofitable
Delight Displeasure
Pleasure Offence
Pleasures of Sense; Pleasures of the Mind; Joy Paine Griefe
The Will
Formes of Speech, in Passion
Good and Evill Apparent
Felicity
Praise Magnification
VII: Of the Ends or Resolutions of Discourse
Judgement, or Sentence Final; Doubt
Science Opinion Conscience
Beliefe Faith
VIII: Of the Vertues Commonly Called Intellectual; and Their Contrary Defects
Intellectuall Vertue Defined
Wit, Naturall, or Acquired
Good Wit, or Fancy; Good Judgement; Discretion
Prudence
Craft
Acquired Wit
Giddinesse Madnesse
Rage
Melancholy
Insignificant Speech
IX: Of the Severall Subjects of Knowledge
X: Of Power, Worth, Dignity, Honour and Worthiness
Power
Worth
Dignity
To Honour and Dishonour
Titles of Honour
Worthinesse Fitnesse
XI: Of the Difference of Manners
What Is Here Meant by Manners
A Restlesse Desire of Power, in All Men
Love of Contention from Competition
Civil Obedience from Love of Ease
From Feare of Death or Wounds
And from Love of Arts
Love of Vertue, from Love of Praise
Hate, from Difficulty of Requiting Great Benefits
And from Conscience of Deserving to Be Hated
Promptnesse to Hurt, from Fear
And from Distrust of Their Own Wit
Vain Undertaking from Vain-glory
Ambition, from Opinion of Sufficiency
Irresolution, from Too Great Valuing of Small Matters
And from the Ignorance of Naturall Causes
And from Want of Understanding
Credulity from Ignorance of Nature
Curiosity to Know, from Care of Future Time
Naturall Religion, from the Same
XII: Of Religion
Religion, in Man Onely
First, from His Desire of Knowing Causes
From the Consideration of the Beginning of Things
From His Observation of the Sequell of Things
Which Makes Them Fear the Power of Invisible Things
And Suppose Them Incorporeall
But Know Not the Way How They Effect Anything
But Honour Them as They Honour Men
And Attribute to Them All Extraordinary Events
Foure Things, Naturall Seeds of Religion
Made Different by Culture
The Absurd Opinion of Gentilisme
The Causes of Change in Religion
Injoyning Beleefe of Impossibilities
Doing Contrary to the Religion They Establish
Want of the Testimony of Miracles
XIII: Of the Naturall Condition of Mankind, as Concerning Their Felicity, and Misery
From Equality Proceeds Diffidence
From Diffidence Warre
Out of Civil States,
The Incommodites of Such a War
In Such a Warre, Nothing Is Unjust
The Passions That Incline Men to Peace
XIV: Of the First and Second Naturall Lawes, and of Contracts
Right of Nature What
Liberty What
A Law of Nature What
Naturally Every Man Has Right to Everything
The Fundamental Law of Nature
The Second Law of Nature
What It Is to Lay Down a Right
Renouncing (or) Transferring Right What; Obligation Duty Justice
Not All Rights Are Alienable
Contract What
Covenant What
Free-gift
Signes of Contract Expresse
Signes of Contract by Inference
Free Gift Passeth by Words of the Present or Past
Merit What
Covenants of Mutuall Trust, When Invalid
Right to the End, Containeth Right to The Means
No Covenant with Beasts
Nor with God without Speciall Revelation
No Covenant, but of Possible and Future
Covenants How Made Voyd
Covenants Extorted by Feare Are Valide
The Former Covenant to One, Makes Voyd the Later to Another
A Mans Covenant Not to Defend Himselfe, Is Voyd
No Man Obliged to Accuse Himselfe
The End of an Oath; the Forme of as Oath
No Oath, but by God
An Oath Addes Nothing to the Obligation
XV: Of Other Lawes of Nature
The Third Law of Nature, Justice
Justice and Injustice What
Justice Not Contrary to Reason
Covenants Not Discharged by the Vice of the Person to Whom Made
Justice of Men, and Justice of Actions What
Justice of Manners, and Justice of Actions
Nothing Done to a Man, by His Own Consent Can be Injury
Justice Commutative, and Distributive
The Fourth Law of Nature, Gratitude
The Fifth, Mutuall Accommodation, or Compleasance
The Sixth, Facility to Pardon
The Seventh, That in Revenges, Men Respect Onely the Future Good
The Eighth, Against Contumely
The Ninth, Against Pride
The Tenth Against Arrogance
The Eleventh Equity
The Twelfth, Equall Use of Things Common
The Thirteenth, of Lot
The Fourteenth, of Primogeniture, and First Seising
The Fifteenth, of Mediators
The Sixteenth, of Submission to Arbitrement
The Seventeenth, No Man Is His Own Judge
The Eighteenth, No Man to be Judge, That Has in Him Cause of Partiality
The Nineteenth, of Witnesse
A Rule, by Which the Laws of Nature May Easily be Examined
The Lawes of Nature Oblige in Conscience Alwayes,
The Laws of Nature Are Eternal;
And Yet Easie
The Science of These Lawes, Is the True Morall Philosophy
XVI: Of Persons, Authors, and Things Personated
A Person What
Person Naturall, and Artificiall
The Word Person, Whence
Actor, Author; Authority
Covenants by Authority, Bind the Author
But Not the Actor
The Authority Is to be Shewne
Things Personated, Inanimate
Irrational
False Gods
The True God
A Multitude of Men, How One Person
Every One Is Author
An Actor May be Many Men Made One by Plurality of Voyces
Representatives, When the Number Is Even, Unprofitable
Negative Voyce
PART 2: Of Common-Wealth
XVII: Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of a Common-wealth
The End of Common-wealth, Particular Security
Which Is Not to be Had from the Law of Nature:
Nor From the Conjunction of a Few Men or Familyes
Nor from a Great Multitude, Unlesse Directed by One Judgement
And That Continually
Why Certain Creatures without Reason, or Speech, Do Neverthelesse Live in Society, without Any Coercive Power
The Generation of a Common-wealth
The Definition of a Common-wealth
Soveraigne, and Subject, What
XVIII: Of the Rights of Soveraignes by Institution
The Act of Instituting a Common-wealth, What
The Consequences To Such Institution, Are
And Judge of What Doctrines Are Fit to be Taught Them
These Rights Are Indivisible
And Can by No Grant Passe Away without Direct Renouncing of the Soveraign Power
The Power and Honour of Subjects Vanisheth in the Presence of the Power Soveraign
Soveraigne Power Not Hurtfull as the Want of It, and the Hurt Proceeds for the Greatest Part from Not Submitting Readily, to a Lesse
XIX: Of the Severall Kinds of Common-Wealth by Institution, and of Succession to the Soveraigne Power
The Different Formes of Common-wealths but Three
Tyranny and Oligarchy, but Different Names of Monarchy, and Aristocracy
Subordinate Representatives Dangerous
Comparison of Monarchy, with Soveraign Assemblyes
Of the Right of Succession
Succession Passeth by Expresse Words;
Or, by Not Controlling a Custome;
Or, by Presumption of Naturall Affection
To Dispose of the Succession, though to a King of Another Nation, Not Unlawfull
XX: Of Dominion Paternall and Despoticall
Wherein Different from a Common-wealth by Institution
The Rights of Soveraignty the Same in Both
Dominion Paternall How Attained Not by Generation, but by Contract
Or Education;
Or Precedent Subjection of One of the Parents to the Other
The Right of Succession Followeth the Rules of the Rights of Possession
Despoticall Dominion, How Attained
Not by the Victory, but by the Consent of the Vanquished
Difference Between a Family and a Kingdom
The Right of Monarchy from Scripture
Soveraign Power Ought in All Common-wealths to Be Absolute
XXI: Of the Liberty of Subjects
Liberty What
What It Is to Be Free
Feare and Liberty Consistent
Liberty and Necessity Consistent
Artificiall Bonds, or Covenants
Liberty of Subjects Consisteth in Liberty from Covenants
Liberty of the Subject Consistent with Unlimited Power of the Soveraign
The Liberty Which Writers Praise, Is the Liberty of Soveraigns; Not of Private Men
Liberty of the Subject How to Be Measured
Subjects Have Liberty to Defend Their Own Bodies, Even against Them That Lawfully Invade Them
Are Not Bound to Hurt Themselves;
Nor to Warfare, Unless They Voluntarily Undertake It
The Greatest Liberty of Subjects, Dependeth on the Silence of the Law
In What Cases Subjects Absolved of Their Obedience to Their Soveraign
In Case of Captivity
In Case the Soveraign Cast Off the Government from Himself and Heyrs
In Case of Banishment
In Case the Soveraign Render Himself Subject to Another
XXII: Of Systemes Subject, Politicall, and Private
The Divers Sorts of Systemes of People
In All Bodies Politique the Power of the Representative Is Limited
By Letters Patents
And the Lawes
When the Representative Is One Man, His Unwarranted Acts His Own Onely
When It Is an Assembly, It Is the Act of Them That Assented Onely
When It Is an Assembly, They Onely Are Liable That Have Assented
If the Debt be to One of the Assembly, the Body Onely Is Obliged
Protestation against the Decrees of Bodies Politique
Bodies Politique for Government of a Province, Colony, or Town
Bodies Politique for Ordering of Trade
A Bodie Politique for Counsel to be Give to the Soveraign
A Regular Private Body, Lawfull, as a Family
Private Bodies Regular, but Unlawfull
Systemes Irregular, Such as Are Private Leagues
Secret Cabals
Feuds of Private Families
Factions for Government
XXIII: Of the Publique Ministers of Soveraign Power
Publique Minister Who
Ministers for the Generall Administration
For Speciall Administration, as for Oeconomy
For Instruction of the People
For Judicature
For Execution
Counsellers without Other Employment Then to Advise Are Not Publique Ministers
XXIV: Of the Nutrition, and Procreation of a Common-Wealth
The Nourishment of a Common-wealth Consisteth in the Commodities of Sea and Land
And the Right of Distribution of Them
All Private Estates of Land Proceed Originally from the Arbitrary Distribution of the Soveraign
Propriety of a Subject Excludes Not the Dominion of the Soveraign, but Onely of Another Subject
The Publique Is Not to be Dieted
The Places and Matter of Traffique Depend, as Their Distribution, on the Soveraign
The Laws of Transferring Property Belong Also to the Soveraign
Mony the Bloud of a Common-wealth
The Conduits and Way of Mony to the Publique Use
The Children of a Common-wealth Colonies
XXV: Of Counsell
Counsell What
Differences between Command and Counsell
Exhortation and Dehortation What
Differences of Fit and Unfit Counsellours
XXVI: Of Civill Lawes
Civill Law what
The Soveraign Is Legislator
And Not Subject to Civill Law
Use, a Law Not by Vertue of Time, but of the Soveraigns Consent
The Law of Nature, and the Civill Law Contain Each Other
Provinciall Lawes Are Not Made by Custome, but by the Soveraign Power
Some Foolish Opinions of Lawyers Concerning the Making of Lawes
Law Made, If Not Also Made Known, Is No Law
Unwritten Lawes Are All of Them Lawes of Nature
Nothing Is Law Where the Legislator Cannot Be Known
Difference between Verifying and Authorising
The Law Verifyed by the Subordinate Judge
By the Publique Registers
By Letters Patent, and Publique Seale
The Interpretation of the Law Dependeth on the Soveraign Power
All Lawes Need Interpretation
The Authenticall Interpretation of Law Is Not That of Writers
The Interpreter of the Law Is the Judge Giving Sentence Viva Voce in Every Particular Case
The Sentence of a Judge, Does Not Bind Him, Or Another Judge to Give Like Sentence in Like Cases Ever After
The Difference between the Letter and Sentence of the Law
The Abilities Required in a Judge
Divisions of Law
Another Division of Law
Divine Positive Law How Made Known to be Law
Another Division of Lawes
A Fundamentall Law What
Difference Between Law and Right
And between a Law and a Charter
XXVII: Of Crimes, Excuses, and Extenuations
Sinne What
A Crime What
Where No Civill Law Is, There Is No Crime
Ignorance of the Law of Nature Excuseth No Man
Ignorance of the Civill Law Excuseth Sometimes
Ignorance of the Soveraign Excuseth Not
Ignorance of the Penalty Excuseth Not
Punishments Declared before the Fact, Excuse from Greater Punishments after It
Nothing Can be Made a Crime by a Law Made after the Fact
False Principles of Right and Wrong Causes of Crime
False Teachers Mis-interpreting the Law of Nature Secondly, by False
And False Inferences from True Principles, by Teachers
By Their Passions;
Presumption of Riches
And Friends
Wisedome
Hatred, Lust, Ambition, Covetousnesse, Causes of Crime
Fear Sometimes Cause of Crime, as When the Danger Is Neither Present, Nor Corporeall
Crimes Not Equall
Totall Excuses
Excuses Against the Author
Presumption of Power, Aggravateth
Evill Teachers, Extenuate
Examples of Impunity, Extenuate
Praemeditation, Aggravateth
Tacite Approbation of the Soveraign, Extenuates
Comparison of Crimes from Their Effects
Laesae Majestas
Bribery and False Testimony
Depeculation
Counterfeiting Authority
Crimes against Private Men Compared
Publique Crimes What
XXVIII: Of Punishments, and Rewards
The Definition of Punishment
Right To Punish Whence Derived
Private Injuries, and Revenges No Punishments
Nor Denyall of Preferment
Nor Pain Inflicted without Publique Hearing
Nor Pain Inflicted by Usurped Power
Nor Pain Inflicted without Respect to the Future Good
Naturall Evill Consequences, No Punishments
Hurt Inflicted, If Lesse Than the Benefit of Transgressing, Is Not Punishment
Where the Punishment Is Annexed to the Law, a Greater Hurt Is Not Punishment, but Hostility
Hurt Inflicted for a Fact Done before the Law, No Punishment
The Representative of the Common-wealth Unpunishable
Hurt to Revolted Subjects Is Done by Right of War, Not by Way of Punishment
Punishments Corporall
Capitall
Ignominy
Imprisonment
Exile
The Punishment of Innocent Subjects Is Contrary to the Law of Nature
But the Harme Done to Innocents in War, Not So
Reward, Is Either Salary, or Grace
Benefits Bestowed for Fear, Are Not Rewards
Salaries Certain and Casuall
XXIX: Of Those Things That Weaken, or Tend to the Dissolution of a Common-Wealth
Dissolution of Common-wealths Proceedeth from Imperfect Institution
Want of Absolute Power
Private Judgement of Good and Evill
Erroneous Conscience
Pretence of Inspiration
Subjecting the Soveraign Power to Civill Lawes
Attributing of Absolute Propriety to the Subjects
Dividing of the Soveraign Power
Imitation of Neighbour Nations
Imitation of the Greeks, and Romans
Mixt Government
Want of Mony
Monopolies and Abuses of Publicans
Popular Men
Excessive Greatnesse of a Town, Multitude of Corporations
Liberty of Disputing against Soveraign Power
Dissolution of the Common-wealth
XXX: Of the Office of the Soveraign Representative
The Procuration of the Good of the People
By Instruction & Lawes
Against the Duty of a Soveraign to Relinquish Any Essentiall Right of Soveraignty or Not to See the People Taught the Grounds of Them
Objection of Those That Say There are No Principles of Reason for Absolute Soveraignty
Objection from the Incapacity of the Vulgar
Subjects Are to be Taught, Not to Affect Change of Government
Nor Adhere (Against the Soveraign) to Popular Men
Nor to Dispute the Soveraign Power
And to Have Dayes Set Apart to Learn Their Duty
And to Honour Their Parents
And to Avoyd Doing of Injury:
And To Do All This Sincerely from the Heart
The Use of Universities
Equall Taxes
Publique Charity
Prevention of Idlenesse
Good Lawes What
Such as Are Necessary
Such as Are Perspicuous
Punishments
Rewards
Counsellours
Commanders
XXXI: Of the Kingdome of God by Nature
The Scope of the Following Chapters
Who Are Subjects in the Kingdome of God
A Threefold Word of God, Reason, Revelation, Prophecy
Sinne Not the Cause of All Affliction
Divine Lawes
Honour and Worship What
Severall Signes of Honour
Worship Naturall and Arbitrary
Worship Commanded and Free
Worship Publique and Private
The End of Worship
Attributes of Divine Honour
Actions That Are Signes of Divine Honour
Publique Worship Consisteth in Uniformity
All Attributes Depend on the Lawes Civill
Not All Actions
Naturall Punishments
The Conclusion of the Second Part
PART 3: Of a Christian Common-Wealth
XXXII: Of the Principles of Christian Politiques
The Word of God Delivered by Prophets Is the Main Principle of Christian Politiques
What It Is to Captivate the Understanding
How God Speaketh to Men
By What Marks Prophets Are Known
The Marks of a Prophet in the Old Law, Miracles, and Doctrine Conformable to the Law
Miracles Ceasing, Prophets Cease, the Scripture Supplies Their Place
XXXIII: Of the Number, Antiquity, Scope, Authority, and Interpreters of the Books of Holy Scriptures
Of the Books of Holy Scripture
Their Antiquity
The Pentateuch Not Written by Moses
The Book of Joshua Written after His Time
The Booke of Judges and Ruth Written Long After the Captivity
The Like of the Bookes of Samuel
The Books of the Kings, and the Chronicles
Ezra and Nehemiah
Esther
Job
The Psalter
The Proverbs
Ecclesiastes and the Canticles
The Prophets
The New Testament
Their Scope
The Question of the Authority of the Scriptures Stated
Their Authority and Interpretation
XXXIV: Of the Signification of Spirit, Angel, and Inspiration in the Books of Holy Scripture
Body and Spirit How Taken in the Scripture
Spirit of God Taken in the Scripture Sometimes for a Wind, or Breath
Secondly, for Extraordinary Gifts of the Understanding
Thirdly, for Extraordinary Affections
Fourthly, for the Gift of Prediction by Dreams and Visions
Fiftly, for Life
Sixtly, for a Subordination to Authority
Seventhly, for Aeriall Bodies
Angel What
Inspiration What
XXXV: Of the Signification in Scripture of Kingdome of God, of Holy, Sacred, and Sacrament
Kingdom of God Taken by Divines Metaphorically but in the Scriptures Properly
The Originall of the Kingdome of God
That the Kingdome of God Is Properly His Civill Soveraignty over a Peculiar People by Pact
Sacred What
Degrees of Sanctity
Sacrament
XXXVI: Of the Word of God, and of Prophets
Word What
The Words Spoken by God and Concerning God, Both Are Called Gods Word in Scripture
Secondly, for the Effect of His Word
Thirdly, for the Words of Reason and Equity
Divers Acceptions of the Word Prophet
Praediction of Future Contingents, Not Alwaies Prophecy
The Manner How God Hath Spoken to the Prophets
To the Extraordinary Prophets of the Old Testament He Spake by Dreams, or Visions
God Sometimes Also Spake by Lots
Every Man Ought to Examine the Probability of a Pretended Prophets Calling
All Prophecy but of the Soveraign Prophet Is to be Examined by Every Subject
XXXVII: Of Miracles, and Their Use
A Miracle Is a Work That Causeth Admiration
And Must Therefore be Rare, Whereof There Is No Naturall Cause Known
That Which Seemeth a Miracle to One Man, May Seem Otherwise to Another
The End of Miracles
The Definition of a Miracle
That Men Are Apt to Be Deceived by False Miracles
Cautions against the Imposture of Miracles
XXXVIII: Of the Signification in Scripture Of Eternall Life, Hell, Salvation, The World To Come, and Redemption
Place of Adams Eternity If He Had Not Sinned, the Terrestrial Paradise
Texts Concerning the Place of Life Eternall for Beleevers
Ascension into Heaven
The Place after Judgment, of Those Who Were Never in the Kingdome of God, or Having Been in, Are Cast Out
The Congregation of Giants
Lake of Fire
Utter Darknesse
Gehenna, and Tophet
Of the Literall Sense of the Scripture Concerning Hell
Satan, Devill, Not Proper Names, but Appellatives
Torments of Hell
The Joyes of Life Eternall, and Salvation the Same Thing, Salvation from Sin, and from Misery, All One
The Place of Eternall Salvation
Redemption
XXXIX: Of the Signification in Scripture of the Word Church
Church the Lords House
Ecclesia Properly What
In What Sense the Church Is One Person Church Defined
A Christian Common-wealth, and a Church All One
XL: Of the Rights of the Kingdome of God, in Abraham, Moses, High Priests, and the Kings of Judah
The Soveraign Rights of Abraham
Abraham Had the Sole Power of Ordering the Religion of His Own People
No Pretence of Private Spirit against the Religion of Abraham
Abraham Sole Judge, and Interpreter of What God Spake
The Authority of Moses Whereon Grounded
Moses Was (under God) Soveraign of the Jews, All His Own Time, Though Aaron Had the Priesthood
All Spirits Were Subordinate to the Spirit of Moses
After Moses the Soveraignty Was in the High Priest
Of the Soveraign Power between the Time of Joshua and of Saul
Of the Rights of the Kings of Israel
The Practice of Supremacy in Religion, Was Not in the Time of the Kings, according to the Right Thereof
After the Captivity the Jews Had No Setled Common-wealth during the Captivity, the Jews had no Common-wealth at All
XLI: Of the Office of Our Blessed Saviour
Three Parts of the Office of Christ
His Office as a Redeemer
Christs Kingdome Not of This World
The End of Christs Comming Was to Renew the Covenant of the Kingdome of God, and to Perswade the Elect to Imbrace It, Which Was the Second Part of His Office
The Preaching of Christ Not Contrary to the Then Law of the Jews, Nor of Caesar
The Third Part of His Office Was to be King (under His Father) of the Elect
Christs Authority in the Kingdome of God Subordinate to His Father
One and the Same God Is the Person Represented by Moses, and by Christ
XLII: Of Power Ecclesiasticall
Of the Holy Spirit That Fel on the Apostles
Of the Trinity
The Power Ecclesiasticall Is but the Power to Teach
An Argument Thereof, the Power of Christ Himself
From the Name of Regeneration
From the Comparison of It, With Fishing, Leaven, Seed
From the Nature of Faith
From the Authority Christ Hath Left to Civill Princes
What Christians May Do to Avoid Persecution
Of Martyrs
Argument from the Points Of Their Commission
To Preach
And Teach
To Baptize
And to Forgive, and Retain Sinnes
Of Excommunication
The Use of Excommunication without Civill Power
Of No Effect upon an Apostate
But upon the Faithfull Only
For What Fault Lyeth Excommunication
Of Persons Liable to Excommunication
Of the Interpreter of the Scriptures before Civill Soveraigns Became Christians
Of the Power to Make Scripture Law
Of the Ten Commandements
Of the Judicial, and Leviticall Law
The Second Law
The Old Testament, When Made Canonicall
Of the Power of Councells to Make the Scripture Law
Of the Right of Constituting Ecclesiasticall Officers in the Time of the Apostles
Matthias Made Apostle by the Congregation.
Paul and Barnabas Made Apostles by the Church of Antioch
What Offices in the Church Are Magisteriall
Ordination of Teachers
Ministers of the Church What
And How Chosen What
Of Ecclesiasticall Revenue, under the Law of Moses
In Our Saviours Time, and After
The Civill Soveraign Being a Christian Hath the Right of Appointing Pastors
The Pastorall Authority of Soveraigns Only Is De Jure Divino, That of Other Pastors Is Jure Civili
Christian Kings Have Power to Execute All Manner of Pastoral Function
The Civill Soveraigne If a Christian, Is Head of the Church In His Own Dominions
Cardinal Bellarmines Books De Summo Pontifice Considered
The First Book
The Second Book
The Third Book
The Fourth Book
Texts for the Infallibility of the Popes Judgement in Points of Faith
Texts for the Same In Point of Manners
Of the Popes Temporall Power
XLIII: Of What is Necessary for a Mans Reception into the Kingdome of Heaven
The Difficulty of Obeying God and Man Both at Once
Is None to Them That Distinguish between What Is, and What Is Not Necessary to Salvation
All That Is Necessary to Salvation Is Contained in Faith and Obedience
What Obedience Is Necessary;
And to What Laws
In the Faith of a Christian, Who Is the Person Beleeved
The Causes of Christian Faith
Faith Comes by Hearing
Proved from the Scope of the Evangelists
From the Sermons of the Apostles:
From the Easinesse of the Doctrine:
From Formall and Cleer Texts
From That It Is the Foundation of All Other Articles
In What Sense Other Articles May be Called Necessary
That Faith, and Obedience Are Both of Them Necessary to Salvation
What Each of Them Contributes Thereunto
Obedience to God and to the Civill Soveraign Not Inconsistent
Or Infidel
XLIV: Of Spirituall Darknesse from Misinterpretation of Scripture
The Kingdome of Darknesse What
The Church Not Yet Fully Freed of Darknesse
Four Causes of Spirituall Darknesse
Errors from Misinterpreting the Scriptures, Concerning the Kingdome of God
As That the Kingdome of God Is the Present Church
And That the Pope Is His Vicar Generall
And That the Pastors Are the Clergy
Error from Mistaking Consecration for Conjuration
Incantation in the Ceremonies of Baptisme
In Marriage, in Visitation of the Sick, and in Consecration of Places
Errors from Mistaking Eternall Life, and Everlasting Death
As the Doctrine of Purgatory, and Exorcismes, and Invocation of Saints
The Texts Alledged for the Doctrines Aforementioned Have Been Answered Before
Answer to the Text on Which Beza Infereth
Explication of the Place in Mark 9.1
Abuse of Some Other Texts in Defence of the Power of the Pope
The Manner of Consecrations in the Scripture, Was without Exorcisms
The Immortality of Mans Soule, Not Proved by Scripture to Be of Nature, But of Grace
Eternall Torments What
Answer of the Texts Alledged for Purgatory
Places of the New Testament for Purgatory Answered
Baptisme for the Dead, How Understood
XLV: Of Daemonology, and Other Reliques of the Religion of the Gentiles
The Originall of Daemonology
What Were the Daemons of the Ancients
How That Doctrine Was Spread
Why Our Saviour Controlled It Not
The Scriptures Doe Not Teach That Spirits Are Incorporeall
The Power of Casting Out Devills, Not the Same It Was in the Primitive Church
Another Relique of Gentilisme, Worshipping Images, Left in the Church Not Brought into It
Answer to Certain Seeming Texts for Images
What Is Worship
Distinction between Divine and Civill Worship
An Image What Phantasmes
Fictions; Materiall Images
Idolatry What
Scandalous Worship of Images
Answer to the Argument from the Cherubins, and Brazen Serpent
Painting of Fancies No Idolatry: Abusing Them to Religious Worship Is
How Idolatry Was Left in the Church
Canonizing of Saints
The Name of Pontifex
Procession of Images
Wax Candles, and Torches Lighted
XLVI: Of Darknesse from Vain Philosophy, and Fabulous Traditions
What Philosophy Is
Prudence No Part of Philosophy
No False Doctrine Is Part of Philosophy
No More Is Revelation Supernaturall
Nor Learning Taken Upon Credit of Authors
Of the Beginnings and Progresse of Philosophy
Of the Schools of Philosophy amongst the Athenians
Of the Schools of the Jews
The Schoole of Graecians Unprofitable
The Schools of the Jews Unprofitable
University What It Is
Errors Brought into Religion from Aristotles Metaphysiques
Errors Concerning Abstract Essences
Nunc-stans
One Body in Many Places, and Many Bodies in One Place at Once
Absurdities in Naturall Philosophy, As Gravity the Cause of Heavinesse
Quantity Put into Body Already Made
Powring in of Soules
Ubiquity of Apparition
Will, the Cause of Willing
Ignorance an Occult Cause
One Makes the Things Incongruent, Another the Incongruity
Private Appetite the Rule of Publique Good:
And That Lawfull Marriage Is Unchastity
And That All Government but Popular, Is Tyranny
That Not Men, But Law Governs
Laws over the Conscience
Private Interpretation of Law
Language of Schoole-Divines
Errors from Tradition
Suppression of Reason
XLVII: Of The Benefit That Proceedeth from Such Darknesse, and to Whom It Accreweth
He That Receiveth Benefit by a Fact, Is Presumed to Be the Author
That the Church Militant Is the Kingdome of God, Was First Taught by the Church of Rome
And Maintained Also by the Presbytery
Infallibility
Subjection of Bishops
Exemptions of the Clergy
The Names of Sacerdotes, and Sacrifices
The Sacramentation of Marriage
The Single Life of Priests
Auricular Confession
Canonization of Saints, and Declaring of Martyrs
Transubstantiation, Penance, Absolution
Purgatory, Indulgences, Externall Works
Daemonology and Exorcism
School-Divinity
The Authors of Spirituall Darknesse, Who They Be
Comparison of The Papacy with the Kingdome of Fayries
A Review, and Conclusion
TO MY MOST HONOR'D FRIEND Mr. FRANCIS GODOLPHIN of GODOLPHIN
HONOR'D SIR.
Your most worthy Brother Mr SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, when he lived, was pleas'd to think my studies something, and otherwise to oblige me, as you know, with reall testimonies of his good opinion, great in themselves, and the greater for the worthinesse of his person. For there is not any vertue that disposeth a man, either to the service of God, or to the service of his Country, to Civill Society, or private Friendship, that did not manifestly appear in his conversation, not as acquired by necessity, or affected upon occasion, but inhaerent, and shining in a generous constitution of his nature. Therefore in honour and gratitude to him, and with devotion to your selfe, I humbly Dedicate unto you this my discourse of Common-wealth. I know not how the world will receive it, nor how it may reflect on those that shall seem to favour it. For in a way beset with those that contend on one side for too great Liberty, and on the other side for too much Authority, 'tis hard to passe between the points of both unwounded. But yet, me thinks, the endeavour to advance the Civill Power, should not be by the Civill Power condemned; nor private men, by reprehending it, declare they think that Power too great. Besides, I speak not of the men, but (in the Abstract) of the Seat of Power, (like to those simple and unpartiall creatures in the Roman Capitol, that with their noyse defended those within it, not because they were they, but there) offending none, I think, but those without, or such within (if there be any such) as favour them. That which perhaps may most offend, are certain Texts of Holy Scripture, alledged by me to other purpose than ordinarily they use to be by others. But I have done it with due submission, and also (in order to my Subject) necessarily; for they are the Outworks of the Enemy, from whence they impugne the Civill Power. If notwithstanding this, you find my labour generally decryed, you may be pleased to excuse your selfe, and say that I am a man that love my own opinions, and think all true I say, that I honoured your Brother, and honour you, and have presum'd on that, to assume the Title (without your knowledge) of being, as I am,
Sir,
Your most humble, and most obedient servant, Thomas Hobbes.
Paris APRILL 15/25 1651.
The Introduction
Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world) is by the art of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a motion of Limbs, the begining whereof is in some principall part within; why may we not say, that all Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall life? For what is the Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the Joynts, but so many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet further, imitating that Rationall and most excellent worke of Nature, Man. For by Art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall Man; though of greater stature and strength than the Naturall, for whose protection and defence it was intended; and in which, the Soveraignty is an Artificiall Soul, as giving life and motion to the whole body; The Magistrates, and other Officers of Judicature and Execution, artificiall Joynts; Reward and Punishment (by which fastned to the seat of the Soveraignty, every joynt and member is moved to performe his duty) are the Nerves, that
do the same in the Body Naturall; The Wealth and Riches of all the particular members, are the Strength; Salus Populi (the Peoples Safety) its Businesse; Counsellors, by whom all things needfull for it to know, are suggested unto it, are the Memory; Equity and Lawes, an artificiall Reason and Will; Concord, Health; Sedition, Sicknesse; and Civill War, Death. Lastly, the Pacts and Covenants, by which the parts of this Body Politique were at first made, set together, and united, resemble that Fiat, or the Let Us Make Man, pronounced by God in the Creation.
To describe the Nature of this Artificiall man, I will consider
First the Matter thereof, and the Artificer; both which is Man.
Secondly, How, and by what Covenants it is made; what are the Rights and just Power or Authority of a Soveraigne; and what it is that Preserveth and Dissolveth it.
Thirdly, what is a Christian Common-Wealth.
Lastly, what is the Kingdome of Darkness.
Concerning the first, there is a saying much usurped of late, That Wisedome is acquired, not by reading of Books, but of Men. Consequently whereunto, those persons, that for the most part can give no other proof of being wise, take great delight to shew what they think they have read in men, by uncharitable censures of one another behind their backs. But there is another saying not of late understood, by which they might learn truly to read one another, if they would take the pains; and that is, Nosce Teipsum, Read Thy Self: which was not meant, as it is now used, to countenance, either the barbarous state of men in power, towards their inferiors; or to encourage men of low degree, to a sawcie behaviour towards their betters; But to teach us, that for the similitude of the thoughts, and Passions of one man, to the thoughts, and Passions of another, whosoever looketh into himselfe, and considereth what he doth, when he does Think, Opine, Reason, Hope, Feare, &c, and upon what grounds; he shall thereby read and know, what are the thoughts, and Passions of all other men, upon the like occasions. I say the similitude of Passions, which are the same in all men, Desire, Feare, Hope, &c; not the similitude or The Objects of the Passions, which are the things Desired, Feared, Hoped, &c: for these the constitution individuall, and particular education do so vary, and they are so easie to be kept from our knowledge, that the characters of mans heart, blotted and confounded as they are, with dissembling, lying, counterfeiting, and erroneous doctrines, are legible onely to him that searcheth hearts. And though by mens actions wee do discover their designee sometimes; yet to do it without comparing them with our own, and distinguishing all circumstances, by which the case may come to be altered, is to decypher without a key, and be for the most part deceived, by too much trust, or by too much diffidence; as he that reads, is himselfe a good or evill man.
But let one man read another by his actions never so perfectly, it serves him onely with his acquaintance, which are but few. He that is to govern a whole Nation, must read in himselfe, not this, or that particular man; but Man-kind; which though it be hard to do, harder than to learn any Language, or Science; yet, when I shall have set down my own reading orderly, and perspicuously, the pains left another, will be onely to consider, if he also find not the same in himselfe. For this kind of Doctrine, admitteth no other Demonstration.
PART 1
Of Man
I
Of Sense
Concerning the Thoughts of man, I will consider them first Singly, and afterwards in Trayne, or dependance upon one another. Singly, they are every one a Representation or Apparence, of some quality, or other Accident of a body without us; which is commonly called an Object. Which Object worketh on the Eyes, Eares, and other parts of mans body; and by diversity of working, produceth diversity of Apparences.
The Originall of them all, is that which we call Sense; (For there is no conception in a mans mind, which hath not at first, totally, or by parts, been begotten upon the organs of Sense.) The rest are derived from that originall.
To know the naturall cause of Sense, is not very necessary to the business now in hand; and I have els-where written of the same at large. Nevertheless, to fill each part of my present method, I will briefly deliver the same in this place.
The cause of Sense, is the Externall Body, or Object, which presseth the organ proper to each Sense, either immediatly, as in the Tast and Touch; or mediately, as in Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling: which pressure, by the mediation of Nerves, and other strings, and membranes of the body, continued inwards to the Brain, and Heart, causeth there a resistance, or counter-pressure, or endeavour of the heart, to deliver it self: which endeavour because Outward, seemeth to be some matter without. And this Seeming, or Fancy, is that which men call sense; and consisteth, as to the Eye, in a Light, or Colour Figured; To the Eare, in a Sound; To the Nostrill, in an Odour; To the Tongue and Palat, in a Savour; and to the rest of the body, in Heat, Cold, Hardnesse, Softnesse, and such other qualities, as we discern by Feeling. All which qualities called Sensible, are in the object that causeth them, but so many several motions of the matter, by which it presseth our organs diversly. Neither in us that are pressed, are they anything els, but divers motions; (for motion, produceth nothing but motion.) But their apparence to us is Fancy, the same waking, that dreaming. And as pressing, rubbing, or striking the Eye, makes us fancy a light; and pressing the Eare, produceth a dinne; so do the bodies also we see, or hear, produce the same by their strong, though unobserved action, For if those Colours, and Sounds, were in the Bodies, or Objects that cause them, they could not bee severed from them, as by glasses, and in Ecchoes by reflection, wee see they are; where we know the thing we see, is in one place; the apparence, in another. And though at some certain distance, the reall, and very object seem invested with the fancy it begets in us; Yet still the object is one thing, the image or fancy is another. So that Sense in all cases, is nothing els but originall fancy, caused (as I have said) by the pressure, that is, by the motion, of externall things upon our Eyes, Eares, and other organs thereunto ordained.
But the Philosophy-schooles, through all the Universities of Christendome, grounded upon certain Texts of Aristotle, teach another doctrine; and say, For the cause of Vision, that the thing seen, sendeth forth on every side a Visible Species(in English) a Visible Shew, Apparition, or Aspect, or a Being Seen; the receiving whereof into the Eye, is Seeing. And for the cause of Hearing, that the thing heard, sendeth forth an Audible Species, that is, an Audible Aspect, or Audible Being Seen; which entring at the Eare, maketh Hearing. Nay for the cause of Understanding also, they say the thing Understood sendeth forth Intelligible Species, that is, an Intelligible Being Seen; which comming into the Understanding, makes us Understand. I say not this, as disapproving the use of Universities: but because I am to speak hereafter of their office in a Common-wealth, I must let you see on all occasions by the way, what things would be amended in them; amongst which the frequency of insignificant Speech is one.
II
Of Imagination
That when a thing lies still, unlesse somewhat els stirre it, it will lye still for ever, is a truth that no man doubts of. But that when a thing is in motion, it will eternally be in motion, unless somewhat els stay it, though the reason be the same, (namely, that nothing can change it selfe,) is not so easily assented to. For men measure, not onely other men, but all other things, by themselves: and because they find themselves subject after motion to pain, and lassitude, think every thing els growes weary of motion, and seeks repose of its own accord; little considering, whether it be not some other motion, wherein that desire of rest they find in themselves, consisteth. From hence it is, that the Schooles say, Heavy bodies fall downwards, out of an appetite to rest, and to conserve their nature in that place which is most proper for them; ascribing appetite, and Knowledge of what is good for their conservation, (which is more than man has) to things inanimate absurdly.
When a Body is once in motion, it moveth (unless something els hinder it) eternally; and whatsoever hindreth it, cannot in an instant, but in time, and by degrees quite extinguish it: And as wee see in the water, though the wind cease, the waves give not over rowling for a long time after; so also it happeneth in that motion, which is made in the internall parts of a man, then, when he Sees, Dreams, &c. For after the object is removed, or the eye shut, wee still retain an image of the thing seen, though more obscure than when we see it. And this is it, that Latines call Imagination, from the image made in seeing; and apply the same, though improperly, to all the other senses. But the Greeks call it Fancy; which signifies Apparence, and is as proper to one sense, as to another. Imagination therefore is nothing but Decaying Sense; and is found in men, and many other living Creatures, as well sleeping, as waking.
Memory
The decay of Sense in men waking, is not the decay of the motion made in sense; but an obscuring of it, in such manner, as the light of the Sun obscureth the light of the Starres; which starrs do no less exercise their vertue by which they are visible, in the day, than in the night. But because amongst many stroaks, which our eyes, eares, and other organs receive from externall bodies, the predominant onely is sensible; therefore the light of the Sun being predominant, we are not affected with the action of the starrs. And any object being removed from our eyes, though the impression it made in us remain; yet other objects more present succeeding, and working on us, the Imagination of the past is obscured, and made weak; as the voyce of a man is in the noyse of the day. From whence it followeth, that the longer the time is, after the sight, or Sense of any object, the weaker is the Imagination. For the continuall change of mans body, destroyes in time the parts which in sense were moved: So that the distance of time, and of place, hath one and the same effect in us. For as at a distance of place, that which wee look at, appears dimme, and without distinction of the smaller parts; and as Voyces grow weak, and inarticulate: so also after great distance of time, our imagination of the Past is weak; and wee lose( for example) of Cities wee have seen, many particular Streets; and of Actions, many particular Circumstances. This Decaying Sense, when wee would express the thing it self, (I mean Fancy it selfe,) wee call Imagination, as I said before; But when we would express the Decay, and signifie that the Sense is fading, old, and past, it is called Memory. So that Imagination and Memory, are but one thing, which for divers considerations hath divers names.
Much memory, or memory of many things, is called Experience. Againe, Imagination being only of those things which have been formerly perceived by Sense, either all at once, or by parts at severall times; The former, (which is the imagining the whole object, as it was presented to the sense) is Simple Imagination; as when one imagineth a man, or horse, which he hath seen before. The other is Compounded; as when from the sight of a man at one time, and of a horse at another, we conceive in our mind a Centaure. So when a man compoundeth the image of his own person, with the image of the actions of an other man; as when a man imagins himselfe a Hercules, or an Alexander, (which happeneth often to them that are much taken with reading of Romants) it is a compound imagination, and properly but a Fiction of the mind. There be also other Imaginations that rise in men, (though waking) from the great impression made in sense; As from gazing upon the Sun, the impression leaves an image of the Sun before our eyes a long time after; and from being long and vehemently attent upon Geometricall Figures, a man shall in the dark, (though awake) have the Images of Lines, and Angles before his eyes: which kind of Fancy hath no particular name; as being a thing that doth not commonly fall into mens discourse.
Dreams
The imaginations of them that sleep, are those we call Dreams. And these also (as all other Imaginations) have been before, either totally, or by parcells in the Sense. And because in sense, the Brain, and Nerves, which are the necessary Organs of sense, are so benummed in sleep, as not easily to be moved by the action of Externall Objects, there can happen in sleep, no Imagination; and therefore no Dreame, but what proceeds from the agitation of the inward parts of mans body; which inward parts, for the connexion they have with the Brayn, and other Organs, when they be distempered, do keep the same in motion; whereby the Imaginations there formerly made, appeare as if a man were waking; saving that the Organs of Sense being now benummed, so as there is no new object, which can master and obscure them with a more vigorous impression, a Dreame must needs be more cleare, in this silence of sense, than are our waking thoughts. And hence it cometh to pass, that it is a hard matter, and by many thought impossible to distinguish exactly between Sense and Dreaming. For my part, when I consider, that in Dreames, I do not often, nor constantly think of the same Persons, Places, Objects, and Actions that I do waking; nor remember so long a trayne of coherent thoughts, Dreaming, as at other times; And because waking I often observe the absurdity of Dreames, but never dream of the absurdities of my waking Thoughts; I am well satisfied, that being awake, I know I dreame not; though when I dreame, I think my selfe awake.
And seeing dreames are caused by the distemper of some of the inward parts of the Body; divers distempers must needs cause different Dreams. And hence it is, that lying cold breedeth Dreams of Feare, and raiseth the thought and Image of some fearfull object (the motion from the brain to the inner parts, and from the inner parts to the Brain being reciprocall:) and that as Anger causeth heat in some parts of the Body, when we are awake; so when we sleep, the over heating of the same parts causeth Anger, and raiseth up in the brain the Imagination of an Enemy. In the same manner; as naturall kindness, when we are awake causeth desire; and desire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so also, too much heat in those parts, while wee sleep, raiseth in the brain an imagination of some kindness shewn. In summe, our Dreams are the reverse of our waking Imaginations; The motion when we are awake, beginning at one end; and when we Dream, at another.
Apparitions or Visions
The most difficult discerning of a mans Dream, from his waking thoughts, is then, when by some accident we observe not that we have slept: which is easie to happen to a man full of fearfull thoughts; and whose conscience is much troubled; and that sleepeth, without the circumstances, of going to bed, or putting off his clothes, as one that noddeth in a chayre. For he that taketh pains, and industriously layes himselfe to sleep, in case any uncouth and exorbitant fancy come unto him, cannot easily think it other than a Dream. We read of Marcus Brutes, (one that had his life given him by Julius Caesar, and was also his favorite, and notwithstanding murthered him,) how at Phillipi, the night before he gave battell to Augustus Caesar, he saw a fearfull apparition, which is commonly related by Historians as a Vision: but considering the circumstances, one may easily judge to have been but a short Dream. For sitting in his tent, pensive and troubled with the horrour of his rash act, it was not hard for him, slumbering in the cold, to dream of that which most affrighted him; which feare, as by degrees it made him wake; so also it must needs make the Apparition by degrees to vanish: And having no assurance that he slept, he could have no cause to think it a Dream, or any thing but a Vision. And this is no very rare Accident: for even they that be perfectly awake, if they be timorous, and supperstitious, possessed with fearfull tales, and alone in the dark, are subject to the like fancies, and believe they see spirits and dead mens Ghosts walking in Churchyards; whereas it is either their Fancy onely, or els the knavery of such persons, as make use of such superstitious feare, to pass disguised in the night, to places they would not be known to haunt.
From this ignorance of how to distinguish Dreams, and other strong Fancies, from vision and Sense, did arise the greatest part of the Religion of the Gentiles in time past, that worshipped Satyres, Fawnes, nymphs, and the like; and now adayes the opinion than rude people have of Fayries, Ghosts, and Goblins; and of the power of Witches. For as for Witches, I think not that their witch craft is any reall power; but yet that they are justly punished, for the false beliefe they have, that they can do such mischiefe, joyned with their purpose to do it if they can; their trade being neerer to a new Religion, than to a Craft or Science. And for Fayries, and walking Ghosts, the opinion of them has I think been on purpose, either taught, or not confuted, to keep in credit the use of Exorcisme, of Crosses, of holy Water, and other such inventions of Ghostly men. Neverthelesse, there is no doubt, but God can make unnaturall Apparitions. But that he does it so often, as men need to feare such things, more than they feare the stay, or change, of the course of Nature, which he also can stay, and change, is no point of Christian faith. But evill men under pretext that God can do any thing, are so bold as to say any thing when it serves their turn, though they think it untrue; It is the part of a wise man, to believe them no further, than right reason makes that which they say, appear credible. If this superstitious fear of Spirits were taken away, and with it, Prognostiques from Dreams, false Prophecies, and many other things depending thereon, by which, crafty ambitious persons abuse the simple people, men would be much more fitted than they are for civill Obedience.
And this ought to be the work of the Schooles; but they rather nourish such doctrine. For (not knowing what Imagination, or the Senses are), what they receive, they teach: some saying, that Imaginations rise of themselves, and have no cause: Others that they rise most commonly from the Will; and that Good thoughts are blown (inspired) into a man, by God; and evill thoughts by the Divell: or that Good thoughts are powred (infused) into a man, by God; and evill ones by the Divell. Some say the Senses receive the Species of things, and deliver them to the Common-sense; and the Common Sense delivers them over to the Fancy, and the Fancy to the Memory, and the Memory to the Judgement, like handing of things from one to another, with many words making nothing understood.
Understanding
The Imagination that is raysed in man (or any other creature indued with the faculty of imagining) by words, or other voluntary signes, is that we generally call Understanding; and is common to Man and Beast. For a dogge by custome will understand the call, or the rating of his Master; and so will many other Beasts. That Understanding which is peculiar to man, is the Understanding not onely his will; but his conceptions and thoughts, by the sequell and contexture of the names of things into Affirmations, Negations, and other formes of Speech: And of this kinde of Understanding I shall speak hereafter.
III
Of the Consequence or Trayne of Imaginations
By Consequence, or Trayne of Thoughts, I understand that succession of one Thought to another, which is called (to distinguish it from Discourse in words) Mentall Discourse.
When a man thinketh on any thing whatsoever, His next Thought after, is not altogether so casuall as it seems to be. Not every Thought to every Thought succeeds indifferently. But as wee have no Imagination, whereof we have not formerly had Sense, in whole, or in parts; so we have no Transition from one Imagination to another, whereof we never had the like before in our Senses. The reason whereof is this. All Fancies are Motions within us, reliques of those made in the Sense: And those motions that immediately succeeded one another in the sense, continue also together after Sense: In so much as the former comming again to take place, and be praedominant, the later followeth, by coherence of the matter moved, is such manner, as water upon a plain Table is drawn which way any one part of it is guided by the finger. But because in sense, to one and the same thing perceived, sometimes one thing, sometimes another succeedeth, it comes to passe in time, that in the Imagining of any thing, there is no certainty what we shall Imagine next; Onely this is certain, it shall be something that succeeded the same before, at one time or another.
Trayne of Thoughts Unguided
This Trayne of Thoughts, or Mentall Discourse, is of two sorts. The first is Unguided, Without Designee, and inconstant; Wherein there is no Passionate Thought, to govern and direct those that follow, to it self, as the end and scope of some desire, or other passion: In which case the thoughts are said to wander, and seem impertinent one to another, as in a Dream. Such are Commonly the thoughts of men, that are not onely without company, but also without care of any thing; though even then their Thoughts are as busie as at other times, but without harmony; as the sound which a Lute out of tune would yeeld to any man; or in tune, to one that could not play. And yet in this wild ranging of the mind, a man may oft-times perceive the way of it, and the dependance of one thought upon another. For in a Discourse of our present civill warre, what could seem more impertinent, than to ask (as one did) what was the value of a Roman Penny? Yet the Cohaerence to me was manifest enough. For the Thought of the warre, introduced the Thought of the delivering up the King to his Enemies; The Thought of that, brought in the Thought of the delivering up of Christ; and that again the Thought of the 30 pence, which was the price of that treason: and thence easily followed that malicious question; and all this in a moment of time; for Thought is quick.
Trayne of Thoughts Regulated
The second is more constant; as being Regulated by some desire, and designee. For the impression made by such things as wee desire, or feare, is strong, and permanent, or, (if it cease for a time,) of quick return: so strong it is sometimes, as to hinder and break our sleep. From Desire, ariseth the Thought of some means we have seen produce the like of that which we ayme at; and from the thought of that, the thought of means to that mean; and so continually, till we come to some beginning within our own power. And because the End, by the greatnesse of the impression, comes often to mind, in case our thoughts begin to wander, they are quickly again reduced into the way: which observed by one of the seven wise men, made him give men this praecept, which is now worne out, Respice Finem; that is to say, in all your actions, look often upon what you would have, as the thing that directs all your thoughts in the way to attain it.
Remembrance
The Trayn of regulated Thoughts is of two kinds; One, when of an effect imagined, wee seek the causes, or means that produce it: and this is common to Man and Beast. The other is, when imagining any thing whatsoever, wee seek all the possible effects, that can by it be produced; that is to say, we imagine what we can do with it, when wee have it. Of which I have not at any time seen any signe, but in man onely; for this is a curiosity hardly incident to the nature of any living creature that has no other Passion but sensuall, such as are hunger, thirst, lust, and anger. In summe, the Discourse of the Mind, when it is governed by designee, is nothing but Seeking, or the faculty of Invention, which the Latines call Sagacitas, and Solertia; a hunting out of the causes, of some effect, present or past; or of the effects, of some present or past cause, sometimes a man seeks what he hath lost; and from that place, and time, wherein hee misses it, his mind runs back, from place to place, and time to time, to find where, and when he had it; that is to say, to find some certain, and limited time and place, in which to begin a method of seeking. Again, from thence, his thoughts run over the same places and times,