Food Packaging and Preservation

By Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria Holban

Food Packaging and Preservation, Volume 9 in the Handbook of Food Bioengineering series, explores recent approaches to preserving and prolonging safe use of food products while also maintaining the properties of fresh foods. This volume contains valuable information and novel ideas regarding recently investigated packaging techniques and their implications on food bioengineering. In addition, classical and modern packaging materials and the impact of materials science on the development of smart packaging approaches are discussed. This book is a one-stop-shop for anyone in the food industry seeking to understand how bioengineering can foster research and innovation.

• Presents cutting technologies and approaches utilized in current and future food preservation for both food and beverages
• Offers research methods for the creation of novel preservatives and packaging materials to improve the quality and lifespan of preserved foods
• Features techniques to ensure the safe use of foods for longer periods of time
• Provides solutions of antimicrobial films and coatings for food packaging applications to enhance food safety and quality

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Oct 20, 2017
• ISBN: 9780128112656

Book preview

Food Packaging and Preservation

Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 9

Edited by

Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

Alina Maria Holban

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Foreword

Series Preface

Preface for Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

Chapter 1: Basic and Applied Concepts of Edible Packaging for Foods

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Natural Polymers Based Edible Films and Coatings

3. Edible Packaging: A Vehicle for Functional and Bioactive Compounds

4. Food Surface Properties for Edible Packaging Application

5. Edible Packaging for Food Application

6. Regulatory Aspects and Commercialization of Edible Packaging

7. Properties, Production, and Processing of Edible Packaging

Chapter 2: New Food Packaging Systems

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Active Packaging

3. Intelligent Packaging

4. Physicochemical Properties

5. Applications

6. Conclusions

Acknowledgment

Chapter 3: Active Food Packaging From Botanical, Animal, Bacterial, and Synthetic Sources

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Active Packaging Based on Polymers From Botanical Sources

3. Active Packaging Based on Polymers From Animal Sources

4. Active Packaging Based on Polymers From Bacterial Sources

5. Active Packaging Based on Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers

6. Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

Chapter 4: Powerful Solution to Mitigate the Temperature Variation Effect: Development of Novel Superinsulating Materials

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Polymer Foams

3. Biopolymer Foams

4. Aerogels

5. Conclusions and Future Trends

Chapter 5: Report on Edible Films and Coatings

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. The Application of Edible Coatings and Films on Different Food Materials

3. Different Preservative Methods and Their Disadvantages

4. Brief on Different Methods of Application of Edible Coatings and the Different Types of Edible Coating Materials

5. Factors Affecting on the Edible Films and Coatings

6. Brief on Edible Films

7. The Active Ingredients Incorporated Into Edible Films and Coatings

8. Nanotechnology in the Edible Packaging

9. Problems Associated With Edible Packaging System

10. Future Remarks

11. Conclusions

Chapter 6: Antioxidant Polymers for Food Packaging

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Noncovalent Incorporation of Antioxidants in Polymer Packaging Materials

3. Covalent Modification of Polymeric Packaging Materials With Antioxidant

4. Antioxidant Nanocomposites in Food Packaging

Chapter 7: Polysaccharide Nanobased Packaging Materials for Food Application

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Polysaccharide-Based Packaging Materials

3. Nanostructural Material for Polysaccharide Nanobased Packaging Materials

4. Preparation Techniques for Polysaccharide Nanobased Films

5. Properties of Polysaccharide Nanobased Films

6. Application of Polysaccharide Nanobased Packaging Materials

7. Safety and Related Regulations

8. Future Trends

Chapter 8: Bio-Based Nanocomposites for Food Packaging and Their Effect in Food Quality and Safety

Abstract

1. Food Packaging

2. Nanotechnology in Food Packaging

3. Bio-Based Nanocomposites for Food Packaging

4. Bio-based Nanocomposite Packaging for Food Safety and Quality

5. Commercial Applications

6. Risk and Regulation

7. Future Perspectives

Acknowledgments

Chapter 9: Biodegradable Films: An Alternative Food Packaging

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Biodegradable Polymers

3. Raw Material Utilized of Preparation of Biodegradable Films

4. Film Production Methods

5. Evaluation of Biodegradable Films

6. Use of Biodegradable Films as Food Packaging

Chapter 10: Recent Trends in Active, Smart, and Intelligent Packaging for Food Products

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. The Objectives of Packaging

3. Intelligent Packaging

4. Active Packaging

5. Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)

6. Biobased Nanocomposites

7. Conclusions

Chapter 11: New Materials for the Aging of Wines and Beverages: Evaluation and Comparison

Abstract

1. Oak Barrels as an Active Container for Aging Wines

2. Wood as a Natural Material Permeable to Oxygen

3. Natural Materials Permeable to Oxygen: Ceramics, Earthenware, and Concrete

4. Synthetic Alternatives to Oakwood

5. Comparison Between Barrels and Alternative Systems

6. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 12: Natural Antimicrobial Agents for Food Biopreservation

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Antimicrobial Agents Derived From Microorganisms

3. Antimicrobial Agents Derived From Animals

4. Antimicrobial Agents of Plant Origin

5. Future Prospects and Recommendations

Chapter 13: Dairy Whey Protein-Based Edible Films and Coatings for Food Preservation

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Properties of DW Protein Edible Films

3. DW Protein Film Applications

4. Concluding Remarks and Future Trends

Chapter 14: Polymers for Modified Atmosphere Packaging Applications

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Polymers

3. Multilayer Packaging

4. New Techniques

5. Applications of Polymers for MAP

6. Recent Developments in MAP-Type Research and Application

7. Conclusions

Chapter 15: Using Laccases for Food Preservation

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Production of Laccases

3. Formulation of the Biocatalyst

4. Biotechnology of Laccases in Relation to Food Industry: Food Preservation and Improved Food Qualities

5. Conclusions and Perspectives

Index

Copyright

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom

525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-811516-9

For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Andre Gerhard Wolff

Acquisition Editor: Nina Bandeira

Editorial Project Manager: Jaclyn Truesdell

Production Project Manager: Punithavathy Govindaradjane

Designer: Matthew Limbert

Typeset by Thomson Digital

List of Contributors

Cristóbal N. Aguilar,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

Miguel A. Aguilar,     Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute (CINVESTAV-IPN), Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

Jorge A. Aguirre-Joya,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

Bahareh Ahmadi,     Islamic Azad University, Varamin - Pishva, Iran

Safoura Ahmadzadeh,     Department of Food Science, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

Olga B. Alvarez-Perez,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

Vera Alves,     University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

K.A. Athmaselvi,     SRM University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Alexandre S.B. Azevedo,     Federal University of Technology, Campo Mourão, Paraná, Brazil

Filomena Barreiro,     Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal

Miguel A. Cerqueira,     International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory, Braga, Portugal

Hossein Ahmadi Chenarbon,     Islamic Azad University, Varamin - Pishva, Iran

Giuseppe Cirillo,     University of Calabria, Rende, Italy

Rui M.S. Cruz

University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Centre for Mediterranean Bioresources and Food (MeditBio)

Chemistry Research Centre of Algarve (CIQA), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Manuela Curcio,     University of Calabria, Rende, Italy

Miguel A. De Leon-Zapata,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

Michele M. de Souza,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Frédéric Debaste,     Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium

María del Alamo-Sanza,     University of Valladolid, Palencia, Spain

Stephane Desobry,     The National Polytechnic Institute of Lorraine (INPL), ENSAIA, Nancy, France

Prospero Di Pierro,     University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

Marilena Esposito,     University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

Sigrid Flahaut

Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB)

Institut de Recherches Microbiologiques Jean-Marie Wiame, Brussels, Belgium

Gargi Ghoshal,     Dr. S. S. Bhatnagar University Institute of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, Punjab, India

Valeria L. Giosafatto,     University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

Odinei H. Gonçalves,     Federal University of Technology, Campo Mourão, Paraná, Brazil

Francesca Iemma,     University of Calabria, Rende, Italy

Javad Keramat,     Department of Food Science, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

Igor Khmelinskii

University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Chemistry Research Centre of Algarve (CIQA), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Fernanda V. Leimann,     Federal University of Technology, Campo Mourão, Paraná, Brazil

Mirela V. Lima,     Federal University of Technology, Campo Mourão, Paraná, Brazil

F. Xavier Malcata,     LEPABE—Laboratory of Engineering of Processes, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

Loredana Mariniello,     University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

Joana R. Martins,     CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

Joslin Menezes,     SRM University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Meritaine da Rocha,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Ali Nasirpour,     Department of Food Science, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, Iran

Ignacio Nevares,     University of Valladolid, Palencia, Spain

Diana E. Nieto-Oropeza,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

Aungkana Orsuwan,     Kasetsart University, Kamphaengsaen Campus, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand

Michel Penninckx,     Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium

Ricardo N. Pereira,     CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

Nevio Picci,     University of Calabria, Rende, Italy

Raffaele Porta,     University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

Carlos Prentice,     Federal University of Rio Grande, Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Óscar L. Ramos

CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

LEPABE—Laboratory of Engineering of Processes, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

María Elena Ramos-Aguiñaga,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

Donatella Restuccia,     University of Calabria, Rende, Italy

Romeo Rojas,     Autonomous University of Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, Mexico

Xochitl Ruelas-Chacón,     Antonio Narro Agrarian Autonomous University (UAAAN), Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

Mohammed Sabbah

University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

An-Najah National University, Nablus, Palestine

Lyssa S. Sakanaka,     Federal University of Technology, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil

Marianne A. Shirai,     Federal University of Technology, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil

Farahnaz Sohrab,     Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AERI), Agricultural Research, Education, and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran

George Songulashvili

Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB)

Institut de Recherches Microbiologiques Jean-Marie Wiame, Brussels, Belgium

Rungsinee Sothornvit

Kasetsart University, Kamphaengsaen Campus, Nakhon Pathom

Center of Advanced Studies in Industrial Technology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Tania Spataro,     University of Calabria, Rende, Italy

Umile G. Spizzirri,     University of Calabria, Rende, Italy

Behjat Tajeddin,     Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AERI), Agricultural Research, Education, and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran

José A. Teixeira,     CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

Cristian Torres-León,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

Janeth M. Ventura-Sobrevilla,     Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

António A. Vicente,     CEB—Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

Margarida C. Vieira

University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Centre for Mediterranean Bioresources and Food (MeditBio), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

Mohd Yusuf,     YMD College, Maharshi Dayanand University, Nuh, Haryana, India

Foreword

In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)

Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials,

Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest,

Bucharest, Romania

Series Preface

The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

Volume 4: Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome, and Health

Volume 12: Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry

Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry

Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Volume 19: Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering

Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome, and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Preface for Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

Food packaging is the largest packaging market, leading to constantly increasing innovation and scientific progress, but also to major concerns regarding environmental (numerous packaging materials are major pollutants), economical, and health related aspects.

The main aim of advanced food packaging research is to ensure a healthier, convenient, and extended shelf life of food, while utilizing environmental-friendly materials. New materials designed for innovative food packaging rely on natural substances, polymers, and bio-based formulations that are able to offer particular properties for each type of food products. Various types of edible packaging materials have been recently developed and they were adapted for different foods, such as fruits, vegetables, meat, and also beverages. The main considered and optimized characteristics of such packaging materials refer to: oxygen permeability, mass transfer, ability to limit heat transfer, and to offer protection against contamination. In the case of contamination parameter, biological contamination was particularly considered in the last years, since it is well known that microbial contaminated food is rapidly degraded and presents a high risk for health and economy.

Also, approached food-packaging procedures lead to the preferential development of particular structures in the form of films and coatings to ensure all required parameters to support a sustainable food preservation in packaged foods.

This volume brings together recent and interesting information regarding advanced packaging and preservation approaches in food industry, while presenting latest production and processing technologies for new packaging materials, depending on the food types and intended purpose.

Volume 9 contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from Mexico, Italy, Portugal, Brazil, France, Iran, India, Thailand, Spain, and Belgium.

The selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, material science researchers but also any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances on the field of Food packaging and preservation.

In Chapter 1 of this volume, Basic and Applied Concepts of Edible Packaging for Foods, Aguirre-Joya et al., describe basic and applied aspects of edible foods packaging and highlight important challenges and advantages of newly designed packaging products to be utilized as alternative or additional approaches to conventional packaging.

Chapter 2 was prepared by Cruz et al., that deals with New Food Packaging Systems. This chapter discusses some of the most investigated particularities of novel packaging systems considered to fulfill the increasing consumer demand for safe, minimally processed, and extended shelf-life high-quality foods. Recent research on the field and impressive innovation in the area of food packaging is also revealed within this work.

Leimann et al., in Chapter 3, Active Food Packaging From Botanical, Animal, Bacterial, and Synthetic Sources, present an overview of the existing strategies to develop viable food packaging products by combining biodegradable polymeric matrices of natural or synthetic origin with natural additives able to confer specific functionalities (e.g., natural extracts, essential oils, enzymes, vitamins, and bacteriocins) or improve its mechanical properties (e.g., nanoreinforcements from organic or inorganic sources).

Chapter 4, Powerful Solution to Mitigate the Temperature Variation Effect: Development of Novel Superinsulating Materials, written by Ahmadzadeh et al., shows the impact of superinsulating materials to ensure quality preservation of temperature-sensitive products, ranging from fresh and frozen foods to vaccines and blood. Currently used containers with limited efficiency as a thermal insulation do not provide a good protection against temperature fluctuations. The insulation performance could be improved by reducing mean cell size in porous materials. By reducing the pore size to or smaller than the mean-free movement path of the gas (70 nm), thermal conduction through the gas inside the cell is eliminated.

Chapter 5, prepared by Menezes and Athmaselvi, Report on Edible Films and Coatings, reports on the major film/coating forming components (polysacchrides, proteins, and lipids) and other active ingredients, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, antibrowning, texture enhancers, nutraceuticals, spices, nutrients, flavors, colorants, and so on, which has been added into the newly developed edible packaging. The application of these active films and coatings in the preservation of fruits and vegetables, meat, poultry, sea-food, bakery, dairy, confectionary, and oil fried-food materials have been also discussed in this report.

Cirillo et al., in Chapter 6, Antioxidant Polymers for Food Packaging, provide an exhaustive overview on the most relevant progresses in the field of different additive agents, which have been incorporated into packaging materials, including absorbers, antimoistures, antimicrobials, and antioxidants. The most investigated methods (e.g., incorporation, covalent immobilization, and coatings) and fabrication strategies are also covered by this work. A particular focus of the chapter is on the future perspectives for researchers working with packaging design, pointing out the strengths and the weaknesses of the available approaches, suggesting possible outcomes.

Chapter 7, Polysaccharide Nanobased Packaging Materials for Food Application, prepared by Orsuwan and Sothornvit, gives an overview on the recent polysaccharide nanobased packaging materials, processing, properties, food application, the impact on food products, and food safety.

Ramos et al., in Chapter 8, Bio-Based Nanocomposites for Food Packaging and Their Effect in Food Quality and Safety, discuss the latest food packaging evolutions and expectations of forthcoming developments involving the use of bio-based nanocomposites in biodegradable packaging.

Rocha et al., in Chapter 9, Biodegradable Films: An Alternative Food Packaging, reveal the increasing interest in the use of biodegradable polymers for the development of new materials as an alternative solution to the environmental problems caused by the accumulation of nondegradable synthetic containers.

Chapter 10, Recent Trends in Active, Smart, and Intelligent Packaging for Food Products, prepared by Ghoshal, reveals the recent progress made on the field of smart packaging with applications in food industry, such as biodegradable packaging, application of nanoclay, biosensors including gas sensors, fluorescence-based oxygen sensors, electronic nose, and so on. Legal aspects of using the bioengineered packaging, as well as problems associated with the commercialization and some probable solutions are also discussed.

In Chapter 11, New Materials for the Aging of Wines and Beverages: Evaluation and Comparison, prepared by Nevares and del Alamo-Sanza, is presented in detail the operation of oak barrels-based beverage aging and recent advances regarding new alternatives attempting to reproduce the operation of a wooden-oak barrel through a new system, which involve novel materials.

Chapter 12, written by Yusuf, entitled: Natural Antimicrobial Agents for Food Biopreservation, encompasses the antimicrobial compounds derived and isolated from various natural sources (including microorganisms, animals and plant extracts) with a great potential in biopreservation.

Di Pierro et al., in Chapter 13, Dairy Whey Protein-Based Edible Films and Coatings for Food Preservation, discuss about the properties of dairy whey (DW) proteins, as sustainable feedstocks to produce edible films with packaging applications. Properties of DW protein-based edible coatings, such as (1) reduce growth of microbial contaminants extending the shelf life of fresh cheese packed under modified atmosphere, (2) decrease moisture loss in both doughnuts and French fries when applied before food frying with a consequent significant decrease of oil content in the coated fried foods, (3) hinder moisture absorption by biscuits during a long storage period preventing the food-matrix conversion from a glassy state to a rubbery state, and (4) avoid fresh-cut apple, potato, and carrot spoilage during storage without any change in fruit and vegetable hardness and chewiness, are discussed.

The manuscript prepared by Tajeddin et al., Chapter 14, Polymers for Modified Atmosphere Packaging Applications, describes the modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) main properties and applications, revealing this approach as an efficient method for lengthening shelf life of many foods, such as meat, poultry, fish, bakery, dairy products, fruit, and vegetables.

Chapter 15, Using Laccases for Food Preservation, written by Debaste et al., reveals the main applications of Laccases (p-diphenol:dioxygen oxidoreductases) in the field of food industry, such as wine and beer stabilization, decreasing interaction between proteins and polyphenols during fruit juice processing, increasing machinability of dough and ability to be used to eliminate O2 from packaging or dissolved O2 in order to control odors and enhance taste of foods.

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Chapter 1

Basic and Applied Concepts of Edible Packaging for Foods

Jorge A. Aguirre-Joya*

Miguel A. De Leon-Zapata*

Olga B. Alvarez-Perez*

Cristian Torres-León*

Diana E. Nieto-Oropeza*

Janeth M. Ventura-Sobrevilla*

Miguel A. Aguilar**

Xochitl Ruelas-Chacón†

Romeo Rojas‡

María Elena Ramos-Aguiñaga*

Cristóbal N. Aguilar*

*    Autonomous University of Coahuila, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

**    Center for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute (CINVESTAV-IPN), Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

†    Antonio Narro Agrarian Autonomous University (UAAAN), Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

‡    Autonomous University of Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, Mexico

Abstract

In this chapter, we describe details of basic and applied aspects of edible packaging for foods. Important challenges are going on to demonstrate the useful alternative or addition to conventional packaging. Food, pharma, and biotech sectors recognize the edible packaging as an alternative to reduce waste and to create novel applications for improving desired features of a product, such as stability, quality, safety, variety, and convenience for consumers. In this chapter, we include a description of natural polymers-base film and coatings, the properties, production, processing, and applications of this kind of novel system for packaging, the use of them as vehicles for functional and bioactive compounds and their applications for food preservation and, finally, we discuss the regulatory aspects and commercialization of edible packaging and the importance of the particularities of scaling-up research concepts to commercial applications. Thus, this chapter summarizes relevant information about the edible packaging for foods presenting a brief but clear scenario for the future of a promising technology.

Keywords

edible packaging

food applications

bioactivities

functional packaging

legislation

1. Introduction

Food packaging has an important role in chain supplies and it is an important part of the final process. Edible films and coatings are one of the emerging strategies for food-quality optimization. Their usefulness is based on the capacity to maintain the quality, to extend the shelf life, and to contribute to the economic efficiency of packaging materials (Arismendi et al., 2013). In addition, consumers demand high-quality products containing only natural ingredients. Over the years, several techniques have been used to preserve, being edible coatings for composite of the method to greater results (Bosquez-Molina et al., 2003). New packaging materials have been developed and characterized by scientists from natural sources; but despite that, this information is available for the preparation of food covered, it is not universal for all products, which poses a challenge for the development of specific coatings and films for each food.

A package has to satisfy various requirements effectively and economically; for this reason a modern food package should be optimized and integrated effectively with the food supply chain. Changes in the way that distribution chain function, such as the production, distribution, stored and retailed products, reflect the continuing increase for these materials, and also it is intended that the packaging is fulfilling its function and can offer safety foods (Ahvenainen, 2003).

There are various patents and scientific papers regarding the manufacture of edible packaging. Certainly, edible packaging can be used to encapsulate some antioxidant (Cheng et al., 2015; Realini and Marcos, 2014) and antimicrobial agents (Arismendi et al., 2013), aroma compounds or nutritional substances (Vanderroost et al., 2014; Zambrano-Zaragoza et al., 2014). The characteristics required for edible films and coatings depend for the most part on the application of the food product, which might be coated. Consequently, low oxygen permeability is needed for oxidation sensitive products. The properties of mass transfer selectivity allow fruit and vegetable respiration to limit dehydration during storage of avoiding solute penetration.

Fruits and vegetables are greatly perishable during the postharvest management; there are considerable losses due to microbes, insects, respiration, and transpiration (Barbosa-Pereira et al., 2014; Janjarasskul et al., 2014). There are also external factors that include O2 and CO2 content, stress factor, ethylene ratios, and temperature, among others; and internal factors, such as the species, cultivar and its growth stage, that greatly affects the product quality and the risk to the consumers because of the presence of pathogenic microorganism (Bosquez-Molina et al., 2003).

The fresh products quality factors are important to ensure marketability. The postharvest losses of fresh products are important issues due to their rapid decay during handling, transportation, and storage. Mainly, the purpose of edible coatings is to increase the natural barrier of fruits and vegetables. Likewise, a very important fact of edible coatings is that these may be safely eaten as a part of the products and are environment-friendly at the same time as they extend shelf life of fresh products (Ali et al., 2010). The aim of this book is to provide basic, technical, and applied knowledge concerning the development, characterization, and uses of edible coatings in food science.

2. Natural Polymers Based Edible Films and Coatings

2.1. Introduction

Current consumer demands and needs about more natural, high-quality, and safer foods around the world have changed the global market. Actually, they also ask for food packages that do not increase pollution, and are made by sustainable processes, all of these in a cheap way. For this reason companies and researchers have focused on developing sustainable, biodegradable, and edible materials that improve the productivity, food quality, freshen, and provide food safety (Mahalik and Nambiar, 2010).

Biopolymers have been studied for researchers as an alternative to traditional (petroleum) food packaging regarding their film-formation properties to produce biodegradable and edible films and coatings for food packaging (Azeredo et al., 2009). Biopolymers formulate edible films and coatings are structuring ones, such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids (Espitia et al., 2014a).

A definition for edible films and coatings is that they are a primary packaging made from edible materials. Also, it is possible to apply a thin layer of edible packaging directly in the food by immersion, spraying, and drenching (coating) or by being previously formed into a film and after are used as a food wrap without changing the process method of the coating and the ingredients used (Galus and Kadzińska, 2015). So the difference between an edible film and coating is that coatings are applied in liquid forms while films are obtained as solid laminates and then applied to food stuff (Falguera et al., 2011).

In actuality, most researchers have focused on composite or multicomponent films and coatings to improve the final characteristics of the packaging, by summarizing their individual components advantages and by minimizing their disadvantages (Galus et al., 2013; Kurek et al., 2014). For that reason most of the composite packaging are mixtures of a hydrophilic structural matrix and of a hydrophobic (lipid) compound, these mixtures have resulted in better moisture barrier properties than the pure hydrocolloid films.

Galus and Kadzińska (2015) mentioned that composite materials can be obtained as bilayers or emulsions. The lipid dispersed in the biopolymer matrix forms an emulsion. In the case of the bilayer system it is necessary to create first a thin layer of protein or polysaccharide and over this the second layer of lipids. Despite providing good barriers against water vapor, bilayers are less popular in the food industry as they require two casting and two draying stages (Debeaufort and Voilley, 1995).

2.2. Polysaccharide-Based Edible Films

Polysaccharides, such as pectin, alginate, carrageenan, gum xantan, and starch, have been used in recent years as biopolymer compounds to create edible films and coatings in order to reduce traditional plastic packages (Espitia et al., 2014b). One of the materials that have been recently used as a sustainable compound for edible film formation are lignocellulosic ones (Mellinas et al., 2016). Next we describe some of the most used polysaccharides in edible films and coatings formulation. Characteristics of polysaccharides are that they are not toxic and wily available compounds in nature, and have selective permeability to oxygen and carbon dioxide (Erginkaya et al., 2014). This characteristic permits polysaccharide-based edible films and coatings to prolong shelf life of fruits, but polysaccharide solely packages have the disadvantage of low water permeability.

2.2.1. Animal origin polysaccharides

Chitin and chitosan. Chitin is after cellulose, the second most often occurring biopolymer in nature. It is found in the exoskeleton of crustaceous, in fungal cell walls, and other biological materials. By the deacetylation of chitin, chitosan is obtained [poly-β-(1→4)-N-acetyl-d-glucose-amine], a major component of the shells of crustaceans. Chitosan is a high molecular weight cationic polysaccharide with reported antibacterial and antifungal activities, as well as great film-forming capacities (Campos et al., 2011; Ferreira et al., 2009). Due to its characteristics, such as biodegradability, nontoxicity, and biocompatibility, it has been used in the food, chemical, and biomedical industries (Erginkaya et al., 2014). Chitosan is insoluble in water but soluble in acidic solvents, such as diluted hydrochloride, formic, and acetic acids.

Moreira et al. (2011) reported that the antibacterial activity of chitosan could be due to the polycationic nature of the molecule, which permits interaction and forms polyelectrolyte complexes with polymers that produce at the bacteria cell surface.

Chitosan is used due to their capability not only as an antimicrobial agent but also to reduce water loss by creating a semipermeable barrier that controls gas exchange, maintaining vegetable products for extended periods (Alvarez et al., 2013).

2.2.2. Plant origin polysaccharides

Cellulose and cellulose derivatives. Cellulose is the major component of the plant cell, so it is the most abundant organic compound on earth. It is formed by d-glucose units linked through β-1,4 glycoside bonds. Cellulose derivatives are mainly used to form natural, biodegradable, or edible films as they are tasteless, odorless, and biodegradable substances with a low application cost (Erginkaya et al., 2014). Most used cellulose derivatives are carboxymethylcellulose (E466, CMC), methylcellulose (E461, MC), and hydroxypropyl metylcellulose (E464, HPMC) (Çağrı et al., 2002).

In particular, carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) has been reported to be a water-soluble polymer with thermal gelatinization and excellent film-forming properties (Almasi et al., 2010). Nevertheless cellulose derivative films present poor water vapor barriers due to the inherent hydrophilic nature of this compound.

Starch. Starch is a polysaccharide composed of amylase (25%) and amylopectin (75%) (Bourtoom, 2008) widely available in nature and is produced to fabric biodegradable films as starch films are transparent or translucent, flavorless, colorless, and tasteless (Skurtys et al., 2011).

The largest source of starch is corn (maize), but also it can be obtained from wheat, tapioca, potato, and rice. Starch is the major carbohydrate reserve, present in plant tubers, where it is found as granules. High amylose starch films exhibit oxygen impermeability, oil resistance, heat-sealeabity, and water solubility and other physical characteristics similar to plastic films, and can retard microbial growth by lowering water activity (edible films from polisaccha cap lib).

Pectin. Pectins are a group of plant-derived polysaccharides found in fruits and vegetables, the majority extracted from citrus peel and apple pomace (Dhanapal et al., 2012). Pectin (E440) is an anionic polysaccharide with structural backbone of (1→4)-linked α-d-galacturonic acid unit and used in food as gelling, stabilizing, and thickening agent in products, such as yogurts, jams, milk, and ice-cream (Espitia et al., 2014a,b). Pectin is divided into two categories; depending on their degree of methylation these are low-methoxyl pectin (LMPs) and high-methoxil pectins (HMPs), with a respectable degree of methoxylation lower and higher than 50%. This degree of methoxylaion has a decisive effect on the mechanism of gelation (Altenhofen et al., 2009).

Arabic gum. Gum arabic is obtained from stems of various Acacia species and is the most industrial employed polysaccharide because it presents unique emulsification, film-forming, and encapsulation properties (Ali et al., 2013) and it is composed of galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, and glucoronic acid (Anderson et al., 1991). In actuality, it is used in food industries for flavoring, confectionary, and bakery, and also in pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries (Maqbool et al., 2011). It has been applied in tomatoes, bananas, and papayas to improve quality and shelf life (Ali et al., 2010; Maqbool et al., 2010;  2011).

2.2.3. Marine origin polysaccharides

Alginate. Alginates are a natural polysaccharide extracted from the marine brown algae from the family Phaeophyceae; they are compounded by units of R-d-mannuronate (M) and a-l-guluronate (G) at different ratios and distributions in the chain (1–4); in general the sequences of M and G in the chain depends on the source of alginate and the age of the plant (Erginkaya et al., 2014). Formation of gels by the addition of calcium ions involves the G blocks, so the higher concentration of G units the higher gel strength (Albert et al., 2010). Nevertheless, alginate-based coatings can present good quality and preserve food shelf life by increasing the water barrier, maintaining the flavor, and retarding fat oxidation; they may be used as carriers for imicrobals and antioxidants to achieve a high concentration of preservatives in foods (Song et al., 2011).

Carragenan. Another marine origin polysaccharide is the carrageenan that are sulfated water soluble polymers extracted from various red seaweeds of the Rhodophyceae family. They are used in food, dairy, and pharmaceutical industries, such as gelling, emulsifying, and stabilizing ingredients (Seol et al., 2009). Three major types of carrageenans are: κ, ι, and λ-carragenans, depending on the number and position of sulfate groups that respectable are 20, 33, and 41% (w/w) (Fabra et al., 2008). Karbowiak et al. (2006) reports that the mechanism of carrageenan film formation includes gelation during moderate temperature drying, leading at solid film formed by polysaccharide-double helices after solvent evaporation.

2.2.4. Microbial polysaccharides

Gellan. Gellan is a class of polysaccaride produced by the bacterium Sphingomonas elodea (also known as Pseudomonas elodea) and presents unique colloidal and gelling properties and good ability to form coatings (Moreira et al., 2015). The use of gellan in the food industry is increasing where it is used as a texturizing and gellin agent (Rojas-Graü et al., 2008) and also as a carrier for food additives, such as antibrowning and antimicrobial agents, colorants, flavors, and nutraceuticals (Oms-Oliu et al., 2010; Robles-Sanchez et al., 2013). Gellan gum-based edible coatings have been effectively applied over fresh cut vegetables, such as apples, mangoes, melons, and pears to improve shelf life and quality (Dalanche et al., 2016; Oms-Oliu et al., 2008; Perez-Gago et al., 2005; Rojas-Graü et al., 2008).

Xantan Gum. Xantan gum is an exopolysaccharide synthetized by the bacteria Xanthomonas campestris, is a generally recognized as safe (GRAS) compound (FDA, 2013) as food stabilizer, thickener, and emulsifier. The viscous solution that it forms in cold or hot water is stable at a high range of pH and temperature and also is stable to enzymatic degradation (Sharma and Rao, 2015). It has a structure of 1,4-linked β-d-glucose residues and a side chain of trisaccharide bound to an alternating d-glucose residues. The trisaccharide chain is formed by β-d-mannose-1-4-β-d-galacturonic acid—1-2-α-d-mannose (Zambrano-Zaragoza et al., 2014). Xantan gum-based edible coatings have been used recently to improve quality and shelf life, also as a carrier of bioactive compounds of minimally processed prickly pear (Mohamed et al., 2013) and fresh cut apples (Freitas et al., 2013), among other fruits.

In the classification we described earlier, some of the most commonly used polysaccharides for film and coating production, are only packaging material and are also carriers, holders, and physical barriers against moist loss and spoilage. Nevertheless, there are not the unique polysaccharides used, because scientifics and industries are always in the development and search for cheaper, functional, sustainable, and available sources of ingredients. Table 1.1 summarizes other examples of natural polysaccharides used alone or combined to create edible films and coatings.

Table 1.1

Polysaccharide-based edible films and coatings.

2.3. Lipid-Based Edible Coatings

Lipids are compounds that have the capability for miscible or nonpolar organic solvents, but few of them contain hydrophilic and hydrophobic part forming micelle (Fig. 1.1). The diversity of the group is made up by monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, cerebrosides, phosphatide, phospholipids, terpenes, fatty acids, and fatty alcohol (Akoh and Min, 2008; Belitz et al., 2009; Chow, 2008). They are in natural sources such as plants, animals, and insects.

Figure 1.1   Behavior of Lipids (Micelle) on Aqueous Solution and Organic Solvent.

In recent years, the food industry has focused on lipids to apply them in edible films and coatings for preservation, however, benefits for adding on food are huge. Akoh and Min (2008) described how lipids in edible film and coatings provide many features, for example, they minimize moisture loss, provide gloss, reduce complexity, and cost of packaging.

The presentation of lipids may affect some features in film or coating and food, the moisture barrier being the most affected. Animal and plant waxes have a higher efficiency barrier moisture than resins, monoglycerides, diglycerides, fatty alcohols, emulsifiers, and surface active agents (Huber and Embuscado, 2009).

2.3.1. Oils and fats

Oils and fats are mixtures where the major compounds are triglycerides; they come from plants and animals, respectively. This mixture is chemically similar but differs physically, as oils are liquids and fats are solids (Igoe, 2011; Wool and Sun, 2005). Fig. 1.2 represents chemically the lipids compounds that are common on different oils, such as canola oil, olive oil, palm oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, rice bran oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, palm oil; only butter cocoa, coconut oil, and peanut oil are exempt of linolenic (Chow, 2008).

Figure 1.2   Essentials Fatty Acids From Plants.

Rodrigues et al. (2016) made a film palm fruit oil with favored water vapor barrier, water resistance, elongation, and transparency (Table 1.1). They described how their films look in scanning electron microscopy liked discontinuous appearance with uniform droplets. These films can be tried on food, for example, Vargas et al. (2011) and Hassani et al. (2012). Vargas et al. put sunflower oil in edible coatings and on pork meat hamburgers for increasing the quality of food, because on meat it was important to modulate water vapor and oxygen to prevent an undesirable reaction; but Hassani et al. tried rice bran oil for extending the shelf life of kiwifruit. Fruits were preserved principally on firmness, taste, and color, however, chemistry values were down.

2.3.2. Essential oils

Essential oils are extracts rich in hydrophobic and volatile compounds. They contain an important antimicrobial activity due to terpenes, terpenoids, and aromatic constituents of, which they are formed (Han, 2014). Listeria monocytogenes, S. enteric, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli O157:H7 are principal pathogens we can find on contaminated food. Randazzo et al. (2016), Moradi et al. (2016), and Du et al., 2009 tested various essential oils in films to evaluate antimicrobial effect and properties of matrix. Randazzo et al. (2016) used citrus essential oils of peels from orange, mandarin, and lemon. They checked the oils applied on chitosan or methylcellulose films were present antilisterial activity. Chitosan film with essential oils presented better incorporation of oil. Then Moradi et al. (2016) suggested a film with zein, 3% Zataria multiflora Boiss essential oil and 1% monolaurin because this film presented synergism of compounds and consequently had effect on bacterial load. Finally, Du et al. (2009) used allspice, cinnamon, and clove bud essential oils. Films had antibacterial activity but water vapor and tensile properties had no effect over them.

2.3.3. Waxes

Waxes have higher molecular weight because they are formed by esters of a long chain acid and long chain alcohol. The origin of waxes are animal and vegetal; they have a function of protective covering tissues. These are useful on edible films or coatings for efficiency reducing moisture permeability for high hydrophobicity (Akoh and Min, 2008; Huber and Embuscado, 2009; Sikorski and Kolakowska, 2011).

Saucedo-Pompa et al. (2007) designed an edible coating with candelilla wax and Aloe vera gel, applied on fresh-cut fruits. They concluded that candelilla coatings were an alternative for the preservation of food, in this case apples, avocados, and bananas. They observed it was helpful in firmness, weight loss, and appearance and lightness values compared to fruits without coating. However, edible coatings or films with waxes suffer disadvantages, such as brittle or form a rigid matrix; this depends a lot on the other components and concentrations of wax. Kowalczyk (2016) created films with 5% (w/w) aqueous biopolymer solutions containing 3% (w/w) sorbitol, 0.5% (w/w) candelilla wax, and 0.35% (w/w) Tween 40 for carrier ascorbic acid. Candelilla wax interacted differently with aqueous biopolymers affecting solubility, with sodium carboxymethyl or soy protein isolate present in full solubility and oxidized potato starch or pork gelatin solubility were partial. Spotti et al. (2016) mixed brea gum, beeswax, and glycerol, but they concluded that beeswax did not help in this film because of decreased mechanical properties, water vapor permeability, and microstructure. Nevertheless, waxes are not bad materials for films; for example, Chiumarelli and Hubinger (2014) presented a film with amazing properties, having good barrier, good mechanical, thermal, physical, and structure, and it was composed for cassava starch, glycerol, carnauba wax, and stearic acid. They tested different concentrations of carnauba wax but finally they took a low concentration because with a higher concentration of wax, the matrix showed a rigid structure.

2.3.4. Resins

Resins are substances that plant cells produce for response to injury or infection in trees and shrubs; and some insects can produce them, which is the case of Laccifer lacca that produces shellac resin. Major of resins are translucent with yellowish-brown tones and physically are solid or semisolid (Baldwin et al., 2012). Chauhan et al. (2015) and Chitravathi et al. (2014) improved edible coatings on a base of shellac; they applied it on tomatoes and green chillies, respectively. Both groups of researchers found those films showed glossiness, transparency, quick drying nature, and sound emulsion stability, but then when applied on food, the coatings were optimal barriers of gases and water vapor and prevented senescence. They could extend shelf life by 12 days of these foods. Even so, shellac resin has a problem of esterification, so because of that, pharmaceutical industries decline to use this resin. Soradech et al. (2013) tried to stabilize a film; it had shellac resin with gelatin, a diverse concentration to protect the actives sites of shellac.

2.3.5. Plastificizers

Plasticizers are compounds with low molecular weight that increase flexibility and strength of a material. The addition of plasticizers on film or coating help increase permeability to water and gases due to capacity for reduction of intermolecular forces in a polymer. Glycerol and polysorbates are popular plasticizers (Han, 2014; Rahman, 2007).

The addition of diverse plasticizers lipidic to film or coating have a positive affect, which is the case glycerol-sage seed gum film, where demonstrated plasticizers increase thickness, moisture content, moisture uptake (Mohammad et al., 2015), but mechanical properties (elongation and tensile strength) were influenced by concentration, hydrophobic tail of compound, and stirring of emulsion that was the case of films with glycerol-chia seed mucilage and glycerol-chitosan (Dick et al., 2015; Santacruz et al., 2015). About morphology, glycerol-crees seed gum edible films were homogeneous and smooth without cracks, as described by Jouki et al. (2013).

2.3.6. Emulsifiers

Emulsifiers are macromolecular stabilizers of character ionic that can reduce surface tension between two immiscible phases at their interface, allowing them to become miscible. The principal function is preventing syneresis or phases separation, because they keep hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (Badui, 2006; Igoe, 2011; Rahman, 2007).

Important emulsifiers are lecithins; they are a mixture or fractions of phospholipids, they originate in animal-like egg lecithin or vegetal-like soybean lecithins (Whitehurst, 2004). Soy lecithin has effects on edible films or coatings, for example, color, opacity, solubility, and in microstructure. Fadini et al. (2013) related opacity and color yellow of the coatings for soy lecithin but Andreuccetti et al. (2011) associated action of lecithin with solubility and microstructure. Andreuccetti et al. (2011) observed that lecithin films, on study of microscopy, had the highest concentration of lecithin in film presented; small globules on the surface indicate heterogeneity in protein network.

2.4. Protein-Based Edible Films

The edible packages proposal is based on using biopolymers. The goal is to join the principal characteristics and qualities of each one and that way obtain the best result, which can be proteins, lipids, or polysaccharides (Quintero et al., 2010). Also, other objectives of the EF is to gather enough qualities so it can nourish the foodstuff and also protect it from unhealthy microorganism by antimicrobial release (Lin and Zhao, 2007).

The EF are defined as a thin layer placed over food (it needs to be preformed). Its goal is to limit the interchange of biogas, pigments, scents, and so on, between the food and its environment, and to work as a vehicle for nutrients, such as antioxidants, antimicrobials, flavors, and colorants, improving the mechanical integrity or characteristics of foodstuff (Krochta and De Mulder-Johnston, 1997).

It is important to settle the difference among films and coatings; the coatings can be defined as a prolonged and thin matrix, which has structures surrounding the foodstuff normally by immersion on the coat solution (while edible films are a prefractured moldable matrix that adjusts to the food it will surround). A composed EF is made of lipids and combined hydrocolloids (hydrolytic polymers that contain hydroxyls –OH of vegetal, animal, or microbial origin. In the food industry, they are used as additives with the purpose of thickening and coagulating) (Ramos-García et al., 2010) to get a conglomerate (Krochta and De Mulder-Johnston, 1997). The EF production is contemplated with the task of leverage of every compound property and the synergy of every component implemented, because the mechanical and barrier properties depend on the compounds that form the polymer matrix (Altenhofen et al., 2009) (Fig. 1.3).

Figure 1.3   Schematic Representation of Edible Packaging and Its Functions.

2.4.1. Proteins

Proteins can be found in a natural way, as globular proteins or fibrous proteins; the fibrous ones are bonded to each other on parallel, and globulars are rolled over their selves (Badui, 2006). Caseinate, the lactic serum, collagen and seine are among the proteins that can be used for EF (Fig. 1.4).

Figure 1.4   Schematization of Proteins Incorporation Into Edible Films.

Caseinate is good for the production of emulsified films, because of its amphiphilic nature, (a product that contains in its molecule one or many hydrophilic groups and one or many lipophilic groups), its disordered structure, and the ability to form hydrogen bridges.

Lactic serum is a good barrier for CO2 even though it is fragile. To solve this problem, various investigations proved that its mechanical properties improve after the addition of a plasticizer agent like glycerol. For the fabrication of films, the first step is to get a concentrated solution of proteins over which heat is applied to denaturalize the proteins. After this, it gets refrigerated to eliminate the enclosed gas and obtain the package material.

In collagen, the EF obtained were used from long ago in meat products, such as cold cuts. The benefit of this kind of coating is to avoid the humidity loss and give a uniform aspect to the product, improving its structural properties (AINIA, in press). Zein is a prolamin and the principal protein from the corn. It is characterized for being a relative hydrophobic and also a thermoplastic material because it is strong, shiny, resistant to bacteria, water insoluble, antioxidant, and adhesive film.

3. Edible Packaging: A Vehicle for Functional and Bioactive Compounds

3.1. Introduction

Edible packagings increase the shelf life and improve quality of foods (De León-Zapata et al., 2015; Saucedo-Pompa et al., 2009). The most commonly used natural polymers for formulation of edible packagings include polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, and its derivatives, chitosan, alginate, gellan gum), proteins (collagen, zein, soybean, and gluten proteins, milk proteins), and fats (beeswax, candelilla wax, carnauba wax, fatty acids, and glycerols) (Bravin et al., 2006; Casariego et al., 2008; De León-Zapata et al., 2015; Pommet et al., 2003; Saucedo-Pompa et al., 2009). The edible packagings are carriers of antimicrobial substances, antioxidants, dyes, and vitamins, thus improving the sensory properties of food products (Krasniewska and Gniewosz, 2012). Components of edible packagings depend on the nature of the food product and the specific function in the food. One of the main functions of edible packagings is their use as carriers of antimicrobials agents to increase shelf life of foods (Saucedo-Pompa et al., 2009). This chapter discusses edible packagings as matrices for additives antimicrobials of natural origin as plant extracts, oils, enzymes, bacteriocins, and polysaccharides for application in foods.

3.2. Active and Intelligent Packaging

Food packaging technology is continually increasing in the last few years in response to growing challenges from a modern society (Realini and Marcos, 2014). This material goes from simple preservation to the analysis of the addition of safety food additives and contributes to reducing environmental pollution. Active and intelligent packaging systems are a modern innovation that goes beyond the traditional functions in which exists an interaction among the product and its environment to extend the shelf life of food, improving sensory properties maintaining the quality of the packed food (Han, 2013). Active and intelligent packaging should not to be confused; active packaging causes a modification of the conditions of the packed food to extend shelf life, maintaining the quality of final product while an intelligent packaging system monitors the condition of packaged foods to give information about the quality products during transport and storage (Ahvenainen, 2003). Both systems can function synergistically to realize what is called smart packaging, providing a total packaging solution using each of their advantages. Besides this, active, intelligent, and smart packaging concepts are often used interchangeably in literature. Some types of smart packaging allow the controlled release of bioactive substances (antimicrobials or antioxidants) or can be added with encapsulated compounds (Lee, 2010) (Tables 1.2 and 1.3).

Table 1.2

Examples of lipid-based edible films and coatings.

Table 1.3

Protein-based edible films and coatings.

3.3. Incorporation of the Active Substances Into the Packaging Film