Food Control and Biosecurity

By Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria Holban

Food Control and Biosecurity, Volume Sixteen, the latest release in the Handbook of Food Bioengineering series, is an essential resource for anyone in the food industry who needs to understand safety and quality control to prevent or reduce the spread of foodborne diseases. The book covers information from exporter to transporter, importer and retailer, and offers valuable tools to measure food quality while also addressing government standards and regulations for food production, processing and consumption. The book presents cutting-edge methods for detecting hazardous compounds within foods, including carcinogenic chemicals. Other related topics addressing food insecurity and food defense are also discussed.

• Identifies the latest import/export regulations related to food control and biosecurity
• Provides detection and analysis methods to ensure a safe food supply
• Presents risk assessment tools and prevention strategies for food safety and process control

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Feb 13, 2018
• ISBN: 9780128114971

Book preview

Food Control and Biosecurity

Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 16

Edited by

Alina Maria Holban

Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Foreword

Series Preface

Preface for Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

Chapter 1: Introduction in Food Safety, Biosecurity and Hazard Control

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Ensuring Food Safety Along the Food Chain

3. Conclusions

Chapter 2: Potential Hazards and Biosecurity Aspects Associated on Food Safety

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Potential Hazards

3. Biosecurity

4. Future Challenges and Economic Factors

5. Conclusions

Chapter 3: Tools in Improving Quality Assurance and Food Control

Abstract

1. Quality as a Phenomenon

2. Seven Basic Quality Tools

3. Conclusions

Chapter 4: Chemometrics Applied to Food Control

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Data Preparation

3. Linear Methods

4. Nonlinear Methods

5. Model Validation

6. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 5: Food Defense

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Intentional Food Contamination

3. Agents Used in Intentional Food Contamination

4. Challenges in the Detection and Response to Intentional Acts of Contamination in the Agrifood Chain

5. Objectives and Outlook

6. Food Security, Food Quality, Food Safety, Food Defense, and Food Protection

7. Categories of Perpetrators

8. Legal Requirements

9. Developing, Implementation, Validation, and Maintaining a Food Defense Plan

10. Tools Applied in the Development of a System of Food Defense

11. Accessibility to Attractive Targets

12. Food Defense in Practice

13. Emergency Procedures

14. Cost of Food Defense

15. Involvement of Authorities in Food Defense

16. Conclusions

Chapter 6: Detection of Biogenic Amines: Quality and Toxicity Indicators in Food of Animal Origin

Abstract

1. Biogenic Amines

2. Biogenic Amines: Toxicological Aspect

3. Biogenic Amines: Food Quality Aspect

4. Procedures for Biogenic Amines Detection

5. HPLC in Food of Animal Origin

6. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Chapter 7: Aptameric Sensing in Food Safety

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Food Safety: A Global Burden

3. Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment

4. Aptamers in Food Safety

5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

Chapter 8: Advanced Infrared Spectroscopic Technologies for Natural Product Quality Control

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Methods in Infrared Spectroscopy

3. Applications

4. Conclusions

Chapter 9: Strategies to Reduce the Formation of Carcinogenic Chemicals in Dry Cured Meat Products

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Health Concerns on Dry Cured Products

3. Chemical Versus Microbial Hazards Identified in Dry-Cured Products

4. Strategies to Reduce Chemical Hazards and the Formation of Carcinogenic Chemicals in Dry Cured Meat Products

5. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 10: Detection of Irradiated Food and Evaluation of the Given Dose by Electron Spin Resonance, Thermoluminescence, and Gas Chromatographic/Mass Spectrometric Analysis

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Irradiated Food: Effects of Irradiation

3. Detection of Food Treated With Ionizing Radiation

4. Application of Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) Spectrometry as an Identification Method of Irradiated Food

5. Food Containing Bone EN 1786

6. Food Containing Cellulose EN 1787

7. Application of Thermoluminescence Analysis to Identification of Irradiated Food

8. Food From Which Silicate Minerals can be Isolated EN 1788

9. Food Containing Fat: Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometric Analysis of 2-Alkylcyclobutanones EN 1785

10. Estimation of the Absorbed Dose in Irradiated Food

11. Application of Single Aliquot Regenerative Dose Using TL Techniques for Dose Estimation in Irradiated Food Containing Silicate Minerals as Contaminants: Dose Estimation in Irradiated Oregano

12. Dose Assessment in Irradiated Pork

13. Conclusions

Chapter 11: Passive Sampling to Monitor Hazardous Compounds in Water: A Tool for the Risk Assessment of Consuming Aquatic Food

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 12: Quality Control of Plant-Based Foods in Terms of Nutritional Values: Influence of Pesticides Residue and Endogenous Compounds

Abstract

Abbreviations

1. Quality Control of Food of Plant Origin

2. Vitamins

3. Biogenic Amines: Catecholamines and Indoloamines

4. Biosynthesis of Endogenic Compounds in Plants

5. Quality Control of Plant Origin Foods

6. Pesticides: Plant Origin Food Control

7. Summary

Chapter 13: Drying Drop Technology in Wine and Hard Drinks Quality Control

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

3. Results and Discussion

4. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 14: Biosecurity Strategies for Backyard Poultry: A Controlled Way for Safe Food Production

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Diseases of Backyard Birds

3. Prevention and Treatment of Diseases

4. Transmission Risk of Pathogens

5. Biosecurity Strategies for Backyard Poultry

6. Conclusions

Chapter 15: Antibacterial Effects and Modes of Action of the Activated Lactoperoxidase System (LPS), of CO2 and N2 Gas as Food-Grade Approaches to Control Bovine Raw Milk–Associated Bacteria

Abstract

1. Challenges in Food Production

2. Milk, a Highly Perishable Food Material

3. Antibacterial Mechanisms of the Lactoperoxidase System (LPS)

4. Antibacterial Mechanisms of CO2

5. N2 Gas Flushing, a Novel Approach to Control Bacterial Growth in Milk

6. N2 Gas Flushing of Individual Strains in Mono- and Cocultures: Lessons From Pure Strains

7. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 16: Foods, Food Additives, and Generally Regarded as Safe (GRAS) Food Assessments

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Food, Dietary Supplement, Food Additive, New Dietary Ingredient?

3. What is Premarket Review of a Food Additive Petition?

4. What is GRAS?

5. History of Use or Scientific Procedures?

6. GRAS Status of Previously Determined Substances

7. New Substance GRAS Status

8. What is a GRAS Panel?

9. Self-Affirmation or FDA Submission?

10. Conclusions

Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

Caleb Acquah,     Curtin University, Sarawak, Malaysia

Dominic Agyei,     University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

Tapani Alatossava,     University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Hanna Barchańska,     Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland

Antonio Bartolotta,     University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy

Coralia Bleotu

Stefan S. Nicolau Institute of Virology

Research Institute of the University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Evandro Bona,     Post-Graduation Program of Food Technology (PPGTA), Federal University of Technology - Paraná (UTFPR), Campo Mourão, Paraná, Brazil

Ana Borges,     CIISA, Univeristy of Lisbon Alto da Ajuda Campus, Lisbon, Portugal

Mariana Carmen Chifiriuc,     Research Institute of the University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Carlos A. Conte-Junior

Federal Fluminense University, Niterói

Food Science Program, Chemistry Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Gloria J. Correa-Restrepo,     Lasallian University, Medellin, Colombia

Maria C. D’Oca,     University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy

Michael K. Danquah,     Curtin University, Sarawak, Malaysia

Pradip K. Das,     West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

César A. Lázaro de la Torre

National University of San Marcos, San Borja, Lima, Peru

Federal Fluminense University, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Ilija Djekic,     University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia

Marianella Fallas-López,     COCICEMAC Rabbits Research Center, Scientific Committee of the State of Mexico AC, Texcoco, Mexico

Maria J. Fraqueza,     CIISA, Univeristy of Lisbon Alto da Ajuda Campus, Lisbon, Portugal

Joy L. Frestedt,     Alimentix, The Minnesota Diet Research Center, Minneapolis, MN, United States

Jean-Pierre Gauchi,     MaIAGE, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France

Citlalli C. González-Ariceaga,     Postgraduate in Animal Production, Autonomous University Chapingo, Texcoco, Mexico

Tatiana Guguchkina,     Federal State Budgetary Scientific Organization, North-Caucasian Regional Research Institute of Horticulture and Viticulture (FSBSO NCRRIH&V), Krasnodar, Russia

Oguz Gursoy,     Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, Burdur, Turkey

Christian W. Huck,     Institute of Analytical Chemistry and Radiochemistry, Leopold-Franzens University, CCB—Center for Chemistry and Biomedicine, Innsbruck, Austria

Claudio Jiménez-Cartagena,     Lasallian University, Medellin, Colombia

Siddhartha N. Joardar,     West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Vyacheslav Kazakov,     Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution, Federal Research Center, The Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IAP RAS), Nizhny Novgorod, Russia

Daniel E. León-Perez,     Lasallian University, Medellin, Colombia

Julián Londoño-Londoño,     Lasallian University, Medellin, Colombia

Princess M. Lorilla,     University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Ema Maldonado-Simán,     Postgraduate in Animal Production, Autonomous University Chapingo, Texcoco, Mexico

Paulo H. Março,     Post-Graduation Program of Food Technology (PPGTA), Federal University of Technology - Paraná (UTFPR), Campo Mourão, Paraná, Brazil

Michail Markovsky,     Federal State Budgetary Scientific Organization, North-Caucasian Regional Research Institute of Horticulture and Viticulture (FSBSO NCRRIH&V), Krasnodar, Russia

Frank Moerman, Sr.,     Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

Isaac Monney,     University of Education, Mampong-Ashanti, Ghana

Patricia Munsch-Alatossava,     University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Diego O. Murillo-Martínez,     Lasallian University, Medellin, Colombia

Alexander Pakhomov,     Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution, Federal Research Center, The Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IAP RAS), Nizhny Novgorod, Russia

Sharadwata Pan,     Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, Delhi, India

Luis Patarata,     CECAV, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal

Joanna Płonka,     Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland

Raymundo Rodríguez-de Lara,     COCICEMAC Rabbits Research Center, Scientific Committee of the State of Mexico AC, Texcoco, Mexico

Indranil Samanta,     West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Anatoly Sanin,     Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution, Federal Research Center, The Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IAP RAS), Nizhny Novgorod, Russia

Demetra Socolov,     Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi, Romania

Razvan Socolov,     Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi, Romania

Igor Tomasevic,     University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia

Patrícia Valderrama,     Post-Graduation Program of Food Technology (PPGTA), Federal University of Technology - Paraná (UTFPR), Campo Mourão, Paraná, Brazil

Tatiana Yakhno,     Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution, Federal Research Center, The Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IAP RAS), Nizhny Novgorod, Russia

Vladimir Yakhno,     Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution, Federal Research Center, The Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IAP RAS), Nizhny Novgorod, Russia

Foreword

In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

Anton Ficai PhD (Eng)

Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials,

Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest,

Bucharest, Romania

Series Preface

The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome and Health

Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry

Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Volume 19: Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering

Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Preface for Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

With the impressive progress of food design and processing, current industry has developed new means to control and standardize food quality and safety. The management of food-related risks is a much-investigated domain. This volume aims to offer detailed framework and definitions for food hazard control, potential risk management, prevention approaches, antimicrobial resistance, epidemiology, and surveillance of each potential hazard associated with agrochemical and veterinary drug residues, genetically-modified organisms, heavy metals, microbial pathogens, naturally-occurring toxicants, parasitic organisms, persistent organic pollutants, physical contaminants and adulterants, prions and zoonotic diseases. Biosecurity aspects are highlighted, as well as regulatory frameworks for the efficient analysis and management of relevant health risks, and those associated with the environment.

The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from SUA, Finland, France, Turkey, India, Russia, Poland, Colombia, Italy, Portugal, Austria, Malaysia, Australia, Peru, Brazil, Belgium, Serbia, Mexico, and Romania.

Chapter 1, Introduction in Food Safety, Biosecurity and Hazard Control, prepared by Bleotu et al., presents the main food hazard issues and different methods and technologies used to limit or eliminate them along the food chain, introducing the readers to the field of food control and biosecurity.

Chapter 2, Potential Hazards and Biosecurity Aspects Associated on Food Safety, prepared by Maldonado-Simán et al., deals with world trade challenges on food safety and quality. The contribution is focused on a deep insight into the performance of potential hazards on food safety and biosecurity associated with foodstuffs. Furthermore, inherent elements according to a range of economic factors, as well as future challenges on food control and biosecurity are included here.

Chapter 3, entitled Tools in Improving Quality Assurance and Food Control, prepared by Djekic and Tomasevic, gives an overview of basic quality tools used in the food industry. Quality movement in the food chain introduced various quality tools that help food companies improve different aspects of their food processing performances, including control of final products. Basic seven quality tools comprise of flowcharts, check sheets, histograms, pareto diagrams, cause and effect diagrams, scatter diagrams, and control charts. This chapter highlights practical use of these tools from a food industry perspective.

In Chapter 4, Chemometrics Applied to Food Control, prepared by Bona et al., the basic principles of some linear and nonlinear chemometric methods applied in quality control and biosecurity of food are presented. For linear methods, applications are addressed using principal component analysis (PCA), partial least squares (PLS) and partial least squares with discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). In the nonlinear methods, self-organizing maps (SOM), support vector regression (SVR), and support vector classification (SVC) are covered. Thus, exploratory analysis, regression, and classification problems are presented for both linear and nonlinear approaches. In addition, some insight about data preparation and model validation using figures of merit are also provided.

Chapter 5, Food Defense, prepared by Moerman Sr., provides information regarding potential acts of intentional food contamination, which may hit the food industry both on a national and international level. Since the number of incidents of intentional food contamination has increased over the last 3 decades, although mainly local in nature, governments and food manufacturers must take into account the possibility that disgruntled individuals, criminals, terrorists, and other antisocial groups may threat the safety of the agrifood chain. Many well-documented unintentional outbreaks of foodborne disease have demonstrated that deliberate contamination and sabotage of food may have serious impact on human health. As current food production is highly integrated, food is an effective vehicle to cause harm to consumers.

In Chapter 6, Detection of Biogenic Amines: Quality and Toxicity Indicators in Food of Animal Origin, prepared by Lázaro de la Torre and Conte-Junior, the importance of identification and quantification of these metabolites is presented, especially histamine and tyramine, as indirect indicators of bacteriological food quality, which are linked with episodes of food intoxication in humans. Detection methods, such as chromatographic techniques applied to monitoring biogenic amines in foods of animal origin and main applied protocols are discussed here.

Chapter 7, Aptameric Sensing in Food Safety, prepared by Acquah et al., focuses on the merits and applicability of various established apta-assays over conventional techniques for the detection and screening of foodborne pathogens and biotoxins.

Chapter 8, Advanced Infrared Spectroscopic Technologies for Natural Product Quality Control, prepared by Huck, presents the newest information regarding the applications of spectroscopic imaging/mapping tools in the investigation of food products quality and safety. The principle and technique of the different infrared spectroscopic methodologies are described in details followed by several selected applications for both potent quality and quantity control.

Chapter 9, Strategies to Reduce the Formation of Carcinogenic Chemicals in Dry Cured Meat Products, prepared by Fraqueza et al., present the strategies to reduce the use of nitrite and smoking in dry cured meat products, while assuring the biological safety and maintaining the quality of these traditional products, namely through the use of natural ingredients, bacteriocins, edible active coatings, high hydrostatic pressure, and other emergent technologies.

Chapter 10, Detection of Irradiated Food and Evaluation of the Given Dose by Electron Spin Resonance, Thermoluminescence, and Gas Chromatographic/Mass Spectrometric Analysis, prepared by D’Oca and Bartolotta, describes validated methods to detect irradiated foods. Methods validated by CEN EN 1786:1996, EN 1787:2000 (Detection of irradiated food containing respectively bone and cellulose by ESR Spectroscopy), EN 1788:2001 (Thermoluminescence detection of irradiated food from which silicate minerals can be isolated) and EN 1785:2003 (Detection of irradiated food containing fat. Gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric analysis of 2-alkylcyclobutanones) are briefly described, while original methods aiming to evaluate the given dose in irradiated food, using the ESR spectroscopy, TL technique, and gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric analysis, are deeply described.

In Chapter 11, Passive Sampling to Monitor Hazardous Compounds in Water: A Tool for the Risk Assessment of Consuming Aquatic Food, prepared by Murillo Martínez et al. present the conceptual principles involved in passive sampling and propose it as a useful tool to monitor potential risks associated with heavy metal ingestion in drinking water and fish.

Chapter 12, Quality Control of Plant-Based Foods in Terms of Nutritional Values: Influence of Pesticides Residue and Endogenous Compounds, prepared by Barchańska and Płonka , discusses the quality control problems related to pesticides residue and selected endogenous compounds in food of plant origin. Particular emphasis is given on the analytical problems aiming to determine main agrochemicals, their metabolites, vitamins, catecholamines, and indoloamin. This chapter is a compendium of information on the interaction between pesticides and certain endogenous compounds in plants.

Chapter 13, Drying Drop Technology in Wine and Hard Drinks Quality Control, prepared by Tatiana Yakhno et al., presents a sensor setup developed for registering and quantitative comparison of the dynamics of bottom-up processes in drying drops using acoustical impedancemetry.

Chapter 14, Biosecurity Strategies for Backyard Poultry: A Controlled Way for Safe Food Production, prepared by Indranil Samanta et al., discusses about the backyard farming procedures and associated risks including breeds reared, housing, feeding with special emphasis on suggested biosecurity strategies, and consequences of the adapted strategies.

Chapter 15, Antibacterial Effects and Modes of Action of the Activated Lactoperoxidase System (LPS), of CO2 and N2 Gas as Food-Grade Approaches to Control Bovine Raw Milk–Associated Bacteria, prepared by Munsch-Alatossava et al., describes the potential benefits of N2 gas flushing compared to the use of CO2 gas or to lactoperoxidase system (LPS) to preserve raw milk. Further the authors propose a model that describes the mode(s) of antibacterial action(s) by N2 gas flushing treatment associated with the bacterial programmed cell death (PCD) responses for Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

Chapter 16, Foods, Food Additives, and Generally Regarded as Safe (GRAS) Food Assessments, prepared by Frestedt, reviews the current process for determining the GRAS status of previously determined substances and for documenting a substance to be GRAS as a new activity. Two pathways are currently available by self-affirmation of GRAS status (with documentation on file) or by FDA submission (with a public GRAS determination notice made by the FDA).

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Chapter 1

Introduction in Food Safety, Biosecurity and Hazard Control

Coralia Bleotu***

Mariana Carmen Chifiriuc**

Razvan Socolov†

Demetra Socolov†

*    Stefan S. Nicolau Institute of Virology, Bucharest, Romania

**    Research Institute of the University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

†    Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi, Romania

Abstract

For human consumption, unprocessed, partially processed, or processed food, as well as genetically modified or engineered food must respect food safety regulations, which must be applied along the entire food chain, from raw materials to preservation and processing. The purpose of this chapter is to present main food hazards and the different methods and technologies used to limit or eliminate them along the food chain.

Keywords

food safety

microbial contamination

raw food

food processing

food additives

1. Introduction

Food for human consumption, unprocessed, partially processed, or processed food, as well as genetically modified or engineered food, must be subjected to the necessary hygiene rules during production, processing, storage, distribution, and preparation.

Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in order to prevent food-induced illnesses, such as infections, intoxication, and allergies. Food safety refers to all hazards, whether chronic or acute, that may cause problems ranging from flu-like symptoms to serious illness—even death.

Food hazards can be: (1) biological: harmful bacteria (such as Salmonella sp., Campylobacter sp., Listeria sp., Escherichia coli, etc.), viruses (genus Enterovirus, genus Hepatovirus, genus Rotavirus, family Adenoviridae, genus Arenavirus, genus Flavivirus, genus Hantavirus, Aichi virus, etc.) transmissible via foods that cause food poisoning or foodborne human infections, parasites (Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia duodenalis or intestinalis, Taenias pp., Toxoplasma gondii, Trichinella spiralis, Entamoeba histolytica, En. coli) (Adley, 2006; Benedict et al., 2016; Herrmann and Cliver, 1968; Vasickova et al., 2005); (2) chemical: food additives, pesticides/agricultural products, veterinary drugs, mycotoxins (aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol—vomitoxin), ochratoxin A, fumonisin, patulin), natural toxins (glycoalkaloids and other natural toxins), environmental contaminants (arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury), marine toxins (decomposition and microscopic marine algae), processing-induced chemicals (acrylamide, ethyl carbamate or urethane), furan (causing unpleasant tastes in food and acute and chronic toxic effects) (Safefood 360, 2013); (3) physical: jewelry, hair and fingernails, insects, plasters, broken glass, string, bits of equipment, bits of shell or bone, pest droppings, dust, and dirt (causing nausea, choking, cuts inside the mouth, and broken teeth); and (4) allergenic: nuts, sesame seeds, milk, eggs, seafood (fish, crustaceans, and shellfish), soy, wheat, sulfites, and mustard (causing mild to moderate allergic reactions or anaphylactic shock).

Biosafety represents all measures taken to reduce or eliminate potential risks that may arise as a consequence of using spoiled, infested, or genetically modified food, which could have adverse effects on human health. It is necessary to identify and assess all negative effects that these types of food can have on human health or the environment after deliberate release into the environment or markets. These effects may be direct or indirect, immediate, or delayed.

2. Ensuring Food Safety Along the Food Chain

Food security aspects to be taken into account concern the raw materials (referring both to the toxic substances and possible contaminants) and food processing (prevention of contamination and cross-contamination, proper storage, correct processing, personal hygiene and conduct, and cleanliness and sanitation).

Chemical contaminants can accumulate in the human body through repetitive exposure and can exert their influence long after ingestion, while microbial pathogens can usually cause disease in a few days or weeks (Havelaar et al., 2010). Chemical residues and additives enter the food chain in predictable steps, but microbes can enter the food chain at any step, growing and interacting with the food, increasing costs and reducing taste and nutritional value. On the other hand, temperature abused, partially cooked or processed foods, intended to be reheated, undercooked, and improperly cooled or reheated foods must be considered as biohazards for meat cross-contaminated with bacteria as L. monocytogenes (high risk population), EHEC (high risk population), or Staphylococcus aureus (all population), Campylobacter spp. (e.g., from raw poultry and raw poultry-meat products), and HEV (e.g., from raw pork and raw pork-meat products) (Mataragas et al., 2008). For this reason it is necessary to understand the entire food production chain in order to monitor the presence of pathogens. At present, to manage microbial hazards in foods, HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) programs and GMP (good manufacturing practice) are mainly used.

2.1. Raw Material

The tendency of obtaining high yields per hectare, in parallel with global population growth led to the development of increasingly improved technologies that would provide the desired production methods and maintain or even improve their quality.

2.1.1. The raw material of plant origin

Based on chemical composition, food can contain proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals with different nutritive value. Foods rich in proteins contribute to the harmonious development of an organism, foods rich in fats and carbohydrates provide energy, and foods rich in vitamins and minerals have protective properties.

For cereal production, specific qualities, depending on the destination of the finished product, should be taken into account, such as whether the product is for animal feed, human consumption, or industrialization. For human consumption, vegetables must be present in as a high percentage of diet based on the content of vitamins and various substances needed for the growth and harmonious development of the human body. Growth and getting high productions of these crops requires different technologies adapted to the environment in which they grow (field or protected areas), obtaining successive production on the same surface, focusing on enhanced production per m², and reduction of price cost per product unit.

Fruit is a product that should not be missing from the table of every person. Fruits can be consumed fresh or semi-preserved in various forms requiring appropriate cold storage conditions for long periods of time.

Sites contaminated by heavy metals are prominent sources of pollution and may result in ecotoxicological effects from the molecular to the ecosystem levels, such as terrestrial, groundwater, and aquatic ecosystems (Fent, 2004). The potential health risks of heavy metals such as Cr, Cd, Pb, As, Hg, Se, and so on were evaluated in grains and topsoil (Zhao et al., 2014), in cereals (Islam et al., 2014), polluted groundwater, agricultural soils, and vegetable crops grown (Bempah and Ewusi, 2016). Zhao et al. (2014) showed that the mean concentrations of Cr, Cd, Pb, As, Hg, and Se heavy metals in soil were within the safety limits set by FAO/WHO, but the bioaccumulation capacity decreased in the following sequence: Hg > Se > Cd > Cr > Pb > As, with the mean concentrations of Cr and Hg in grains exceeding the safety limits. Increased pollution due to surrounding gold mines in Ghana, on groundwater, agricultural soil, and vegetable crops grown resulted in higher levels of As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Fe, and Mn than the allowable drinking water standards, accumulation of As, Ni, Pb, and Hg in vegetables exceeding the permissible limit that indicates a very high health risk by heavy metals contamination through the consumption of vegetables grown in that region (Bempah and Ewusi, 2016). Also in China, the arable fields near industrial and waste mining sites were stated to be unsuitable for growing leaf and root vegetables and Cd was associated with the greatest cancer risk (Liu et al., 2013).

Heavy metals are known to be a potential risk factor for cancers. Long-term low dose exposure to heavy metals (without requiring accumulation of high concentrations) was associated with tumorigenesis (Crovella et al., 2016; Ju-Kun et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2015; Thompson et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2014). Statistically significant correlations were established between topsoil Pb concentration and gastric cancer and also between grain Hg and liver cancer (Zhao et al., 2014).

Arsenic (As) is a metalloid that is found in many forms: in oxidation state –3 and +3 (e.g., arsine and arsenous acid), in oxidation state +5 (e.g., arsenic acid), and with covalent bonding to carbon (organoarsenic species). The health risks of arsenic, a widely found food contaminant, have been recognized. The inorganic arsenic species [As(III) and As(V)] were established to be the most toxic and carcinogenic forms (Munoz et al., 1999). For this reason, the Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) created a guide to toxicological evaluations for As exposure (EFSA, 2014; FAO, 2011; WHO, 2011).

Radioisotopes such as ⁴⁰K and elements from the series ²³⁵U and ²³²Th can enter a human through the gastrointestinal tract (Solecki and Kruk, 2011), in particular by way of food, and based on the size of absorbed doses, it is possible these elements might induce potential health hazards in the consumer. This implies the necessity to monitor the content of radioactive components of foods and to implement the appropriate corrective actions when necessary. Godyń et al. (2014) estimated the value of the radiation dose absorbed in consequence with the consumption of popular food products such as potatoes, corn, and sugar beet, and established that the doses calculated for several age groups do not show any health hazards. The ¹³⁷Cs radionuclides dose that was determined was much lower than the doses from natural radioactive isotopes, in particular ⁴⁰K. On average, it is 0.04 % of the limit effective dose (Godyń et al., 2014).

Technologies to increase the productive potential of various crops can have negative effects on human food. In general, soil’s chemical structure contains all the elements necessary for plant growth and development—the environment in which their genetic structure is built on the chemical composition of the soil. Each farmer tends to increase crop production through improving techniques and adding new fertilizing elements into the soil. The best way to plant food is by conducting crop rotation, which leaves nutrients in soil that will be used by the next crop. For the easiest exploitation of soil, nutrients as N, P, and K are added, often in excess in monoculture, obtaining a reverse reaction as desired by the producer. For example, an excess of nitrogen causes excessive growth of plant habitus, resulting in less production and very low resistance to storage. Based on the fact that chemical fertilizers are delivered as stable chemical compounds (e.g., K is delivered as potassium chloride and potassium sulfate), some plants are affected by fertilizing substances (e.g., Cl is a toxic element for certain crops like vines or vegetables from the Solanaceae family).

Pesticides used for preventing, destroying, or controlling any pest (vectors of human or animal diseases, undesired species of plants or animals, insects, arachnids, or other pests) could also have a major impact on public health (Braconi et al., 2016). Pesticides are exhibiting different degrees of toxicity to human beings, either acute toxicity after immediate exposure to a single dose, or sub-chronic, chronic, or delayed toxicity after repeated or continuous exposure (Zacharia, 2011). Pesticide acts by inhibiting the enzymatic activity, receptors, cytoskeleton, or by modulating ion channels activity (Casida, 2009; Costa, 2006).

Pregnant women exposed to the herbicides/pesticides are of particular importance because of the potential health impact on the vulnerable fetus. Herbicides/pesticides may cause life-long adverse health effects in prepartum exposure to the fetus. For example, many agricultural pesticides used to protect crops against unwanted insects, weeds, and fungi target not only the nervous systems of insects but also of humans. Although safety regulations do not include developmental neurotoxicity test, epidemiologic studies associated severe and irreversible neurodevelopmental deficits with mixed exposures to pesticides, especially pyrethroids, ethylene bisdithiocarbamates, organophosphates, carbamates, and chlorophenoxy herbicides (Bjorling-Poulsen et al., 2008). However, the developmental neurotoxicity of other food residues is not evaluated. This means that some more studies and safety regulations are necessary in order to protect brain development.

2.1.2. The raw material of animal origin

Domestic animals and birds can transmit a number of diseases and therefore require constant surveillance by veterinary authorities, both in the growth phase and during slaughter. A major part of raw material of animal origin can be obtained from hunting wild animals and birds. Quantitatively, their share in human diet is low due to limited sources of procurement. In this case there may be concerns about the security of consumption of these products, especially due to the fact that migratory birds may be carriers of various diseases specific to some countries, and thus must be controlled before slaughter.

In order to extract their food, fish and shellfish filter large volumes of water that can contain metals and other pollutants. Fish and shellfish are excellent bioaccumulators and many marine environmental pollutants can be stored in different organs based on their individual chemical characteristics. The identification of residual chemical hazards in fish and shellfish collected from marine environments, or in marketed fish and shellfish, and the maximal accepted concentration of contaminants are regulated by food safety standards. The following contaminants are among those that were profiled in shellfish: Hg, As, Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni, Cr, V, Se, Mg, Zn, Co, Mn, Mo, radionuclides, PCBs, benzo[a]pyrene, dioxins and furans, TBT, HCB, PAHs, dieldrin, DDT, PBDE, triazines, lindane, and chlorinated paraffins (Gueguen et al., 2011). It is difficult to assess human health risks associated with consuming chemical contaminants in shellfish because of discontinuous exposure and other associated sources of contamination. Although, at least for the general population, shellfish contamination represents low health risks, however it is necessary for regular shellfish consumers, pregnant and breast-feeding women, and very young children to maintain vigilance (Gueguen et al., 2011).

Other studies evaluating potentially toxic elements such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, copper, and chromium contents in Pangasius fillets from Vietnam show undetectable concentrations of arsenic, chromium, copper, and lead which aren’t hazardous to public health, but revealed noncompliant samples of cadmium analysis, demonstrating the importance of monitoring the quality of imported Pangasius fish (Molognoni et al., 2016). Also, in Uyo, Nigeria, analysis of heavy metal in millet, crayfish, maize, periwinkle, sabina fish, stockfish, bonga fish, and pumpkin leaf indicated an increase amount of Cd and potential health risks associated with excessive ingestion of this metal (Orisakwe et al., 2015).

2.1.3. Genetically modified organisms

Genetically modified organisms are organisms in which the genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination.

The benefits of using genetically modified plants are: (1) increased productivity through effective combating of weeds, diseases and pests; (2) positive impact on biodiversity, contributing to environmental protection through overall reduction of the quantities of pesticides; (3) improved consumer health through reducing adverse effects based on reducing dependence on conventional pesticides; (4) improving groundwater and surface water based on reducing pesticide residues; (5) higher profits for producers by reducing the cost of production, and (6) lower prices for consumers.

However, one must consider that the use of genetically modified plants presents certain risks not only associated with the genetic modification of that plant. For example, there is the possibility of a gene flow through pollen carried by wind or insects to cognate plants, cultivated or spontaneously developed. This must also be monitored.

Before placing genetically modified organisms on the market or in the environment, an analysis of the cumulative long-term effects must be made. Genetically modified foods should be investigated in terms of direct effects on health (toxicity), tendency to cause allergic reactions (allergens), stability of the inserted gene, maintenance of nutritional properties, and any unintended consequences of the transgene insertion.

Each modified organism should be analyzed separately because the information may vary depending on the type of genetically modified organism, the intended use, and the environment (other genetically modified organisms already in the environment, etc.). Monitoring of specific cases represent the analysis of potential effects on human health and the environment, on flora and fauna, on soil fertility, on decomposition of organic matter in soil, on the food chain, on biological diversity, on animal health, as well as aspects regarding antibiotic resistance. Unconditional acceptance of biotech products is dangerous, but so is their preconceived rejection and is similar to giving up benefits.

2.2. Food Preservation

Starting from the principle that the raw materials essential for human consumption are of good quality, meeting all legislative conditions, consumption can be made in the form of fresh or industrialized forms, depending on the nature of vegetable or animal source. Consumption of fresh plant products is specific for vegetables, the assessed features being the freshness, appearance, organoleptic properties, and shelf life.

The microbial contamination of foods represents a major concern for food safety because of the emergence of new pathogens based on the ability of microorganisms to adapt and change, and also because of changing modes of food production, preservation, and packaging that can result in altered food safety hazards.

Due to food spoilage based on the action of microorganisms (bacteria, mold, yeast, etc.) or insects and also due to the actions of different enzymes, preservation is necessary. Food preservation prolongs the life of food by avoiding food waste and maintaining nutritional value. Preservation makes food available in off seasons, saving time in procurement. The main principle of preservation maintenance of asepsis is using methods that have bacteriostatic or bactericide effects on contaminant bacteria. Bacteriostatic methods include refrigeration, dehydration, glazing, salting, and adding of some chemicals, while bactericidal methods comprise heating, irradiation, smoking, and canning.

Traditional food preservation techniques include heating, freezing, fermentation, drying, salting, and so on, or using antimicrobial agents integrated either directly into food particles or incorporated into a polymer film as an antimicrobial packaging system.

Storage at refrigeration temperatures may result in unsatisfactory reductions of pathogens such as Es. coli, L. monocytogenes, and Yersinia enterocolitica, but inclusion of a maturation period (fermented sausages) above refrigeration temperatures may increase the safety of nonheat treated food (Lindqvist and Lindblad, 2009).

Traditional techniques can preserve food products, but recontamination may occur. Novel antimicrobial packaging systems can suppress the activities of targeted microorganisms that are contaminating foods (Sung et al., 2013). Active antimicrobial packaging is used as a system that modifies the environment inside the food package in order to maintain microbial safety, enhancing extension of shelf life and sensory qualities (Malhotra et al., 2015) (Fig. 1.1). Antimicrobial agents have to maintain the product’s quality, but the choice of an antimicrobial agent is based on the microorganism’s features: cell wall composition of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, growth stage (spores and vegetative cells), oxygen requirements (aerobes and anaerobes), acid/osmosis resistance, and optimal growth temperatures (mesophilic, thermophilic, and psychotropic). During the entire storage period antimicrobial agents that have microbicidal and also microbial static effects can be used, maintaining the concentration above the minimal inhibitory concentration. These commonly used antimicrobial agents include organic acids (benzoic acid, sorbic anhydride, and sorbates), enzymes (lysozyme, nisin, EDTA, glucose oxidase, and immobilized lyzozyme), bacteriocins (lauric acid and nisin), fungicides (benomyl and imazamil), polymers (chitosan, herb extract, and UV/excimer laser irradiated nylon), natural extract (grapefruit seed extract, eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, clove extract, and horseradish extract), oxygen absorber (ageless and BHT), essential oils (clove essential oils), antibiotics, silver zeolites, and so on (Malhotra et al., 2015).

Figure 1.1   Current Methods Used for Food Processing.

2.3. Food Processing

The consumer’s risk-benefit perceptions are of great interest for acceptance of new technologies in food processing in order to be commercially successful. The intrinsic quality of food, in terms of natural flavor, taste, color, packaging, and degree of visual fat, drive to satisfy consumer needs. The demand for highest quality foods that are free from additives and preservatives, has spurred the need for the development of a number of new thermal and nonthermal approaches to food processing.

2.3.1. Ambient-temperature processing

Fermentation preserves food through the formation of inhibitory metabolites such as organic acid (lactic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, formic acid), ethanol, bacteriocins, and so on, and improves the nutritional value, organoleptic quality of the food, and food safety through inhibition of pathogens or removal of toxic compounds (Bourdichon et al., 2012).

Enzyme technology is used in different food sectors like vegetable processing, fish processing, breweries and wineries, meat tenderization, starch processing, and so on. Enzymes for food technology are obtained by extraction from animals and plants, and also specially selected or genetically modified microorganisms cultivated at industrial scale. The disadvantages are the instability of enzymes during processing, and high cost, so that only a relatively small number of enzymes are used in commercial food processing (Ray et al., 2016).

Irradiation is a cost-effective method that can be safe at the optimum dose, resulting in enhanced shelf life and hygienic quality (Shahbaz et al., 2016). While irradiation is used to inhibit sprouting vegetables, delay ripening of fruits, kill insects and other pests, kill the microorganisms that cause food spoilage or food poisoning, they can induce radioactivity and affect nutritional and sensory value of foods.

High pressure processing (HPP) is a method that applies hydrostatic pressures of up to 700 MPa to the food for periods of a few minutes in order to inactivate vegetative microorganisms and some enzymes, without affecting the nutritional components and sensory characteristics of food. Enzymes such as peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, and pectin methylesterase are highly resistant to HPP and are at most partially inactivated under commercially feasible conditions, while polygalacturonase and lipoxygenase are relatively more pressure sensitive and can be substantially inactivated by HPP at commercially feasible conditions (Terefe et al., 2014). High pressure processing can be conjunctively applied with temperature (i.e., >60) in order to inactivate bacterial spores to obtain microbiologically safe and stable low-acid food products (Olivier et al., 2011). HPP has demonstrated wide applicability for producing high quality foods, offering opportunities for increased shelf life and preservative-free stabilization of ready-to-eat meats, seafood, vegetable products, yogurts, dips, guacamole, and juices.

Pulsed electric field (PEF), a technology used for the inactivation of microorganisms at ambient or mild temperatures in liquid and pumpable foods (including suspensions, semisolids, emulsions) use around 15–40 kV cm−1 field strengths for microbial inactivation and less than 1–3 kV cm−1 for extraction of plant materials and pretreatment of vegetables/meat for further processing (Toepfl et al., 2006). Due to the use of lower temperatures, this process does not destroy some bacterial and fungal spores. However, PEF technology issued in the food industry for enhanced extraction of plant cell material, based on the fact that PEF induces electroporation in cell walls at relatively low energy inputs, disturbs and damages the membrane’s functionality and release of the cell contents (Lopez et al., 2009; Puertolas et al., 2010), improving the shelf life of fruit juices increasing extraction efficiency from fruit pulp or improving the cutting performance in the manufacture of French fries (Knoerzer, 2016).To avoid development of resistant strains, the combination of physical treatments like high pressure processing or pulsed electric fields and bacteriocins was used (Galvez et al., 2007).

Ultrasonics and megasonics processing spans over a wide range of acoustic frequencies to provide diverse applications. Ultrasonics use the lower frequency end (between 18 kHz to approximately 100 kHz), induce unstable cavitation (formation of gas and water vapor bubbles caused by the traveling pressure wave through the liquid) (Knoerzer et al., 2015), and are used for emulsification, cleaning, and extraction (Gogate and Kabadi, 2009), improved drying (Beck et al., 2014; Sabarez et al., 2012), and beverage defoaming (Rodríguez et al., 2010). Megasonics use higher frequencies (>400 kHz), to produce mechanical, sonochemical, or biochemical effects (Knoerzer, 2016). Heat and mass transfer processes are typically used for food drying/dehydration but the intensification of the two processes by ultrasound is completely feasible. For example, for drying fruit and vegetables, the use of ultrasound technology for osmotic dehydration as a pretreatment method has the advantage of saving time. For the osmotic dehydration of sweet potatoes, Oladejo and Ma (2016) optimized the value of using ultrasound-assisted osmotic dehydration at a frequency of 33.93 kHz over 30 minutes, and a sucrose concentration of 35.69% (w/v). Low ultrasound frequency favors the osmotic dehydration of sweet potatoes (water loss: 21.62, solid gain: 4.40, and weight reduction: 17.23%) and also reduces the use of raw material (sucrose) needed (Oladejo and Ma, 2016). Although the ultrasonic treatment can reduce the processing time and decrease drying temperature, it may cause food degradation or nutrient loss. On beef proteins, power ultrasound intensity leads to changes in structures and oxidation due to mechanical effects of cavitation and generated free radicals (Kang et al., 2016).

2.3.2. Processing by application of heat

Increased processing temperature is very efficient in reducing human and animal exposure to bacterial and fungal toxins. It has been shown that high temperatures (greater than 150 degrees C) reduced levels of fumonisin, a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium moniliforme that has been implicated in several diseases in both animals and humans (Jackson et al., 1996).

Heat processing using steam or water includes blanching (the process of immersing vegetables into boiling water or steam in order to clean off organisms from the surface of vegetables and inactivates vegetable enzymes, but maintaining their quality and nutrition), distillation (the process of separating components from a mixture based on the fact that some components vaporize more readily than others), evaporation (a process used by the food technologist to remove excess water; the evaporation rate depends on: rate, quantity of maximum allowable heat required for evaporation, pressure needed for evaporation, and foodstuff changes during the evaporation process), pasteurization (heating to a given temperature for a predetermined period of time), heat sterilization (a process that uses a temperature in excess of 100°C in order to destroy nearly all microorganisms present in a food).

Superheated steam is used in food processing operations for drying, decontamination and microbial load reduction, parboiling, and enzyme inactivation. Based on its higher enthalpy, superheated steam can quickly transfer heat to the material being processed, resulting in rapid heating that confers the major advantages of using superheated steam for food processing: better product quality (color, rehydration characteristics, and shrinkage), reduced oxidation losses, and higher energy efficiency (Alfy et al., 2016). However, in order to improve functional properties and palatability of food, the conditions have to be correctly established. For example, parboiling of germinated red rice over five minutes affects its phytochemicals and physicochemical properties, but a parboiling time of less than five minutes was suitable to improve the quality of germinated red rice (Hu et al., 2017). Also, soaking media and soaking temperatures, as one of the important steps of the parboiling process, influences the phenolic compounds (α-tocopherol, γ-oryzanol) and the fatty acids of glutinous rice compared to unsoaked samples. The increased NaCl content and soaking temperature, induced increase of the total phenolic content, total phenolic acids, γ-oryzanol, saturated fatty acids, and mono-unsaturated fatty acids of the glutinous rice, while α-tocopherol and polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased (Thammapat et al., 2015).

Pasteurization of packaged foods or unpackaged liquids destroys spoilage microorganisms and enzymes that contribute to reduced quality and shelf life of milk. Pasteurization is heating to a given temperature for a predetermined period of time in order to destroy all the pathogens in it and to preserve the nutritive value of it without changing the composition, taste, color, flavor, and smell. Three main pasteurization forms are used in the food industry:

1. Holder pasteurization: The product is heated to 65°C for 30 minutes and then cooled to a temperature below 5°C.

2. High temperature, short time or HTST pasteurization: The product is heated to a higher temperature (72°C), but for a shorter time (15 s), using a plate heater exchange.

3. Ultra high temperature (UHT) process: The product is heated in two stages: (1) heating is done under normal pressure at 88°C for a few seconds; and (2) heating is done at 125°C under pressure for a few seconds, followed by rapid cooling and bottling.

Variables that affect the time and temperature at which the pasteurization process is carried out include: food type, viscosity, pH, particle size, and the equipment and method used. Semi-solid products or products that contain lumps or particles over 12mm in size may be pasteurized by scraped-surface heat exchanges, direct steam injection, or microwave.

Heat sterilization destroys 100% of pathogens and spores by heating at 100°C but have the disadvantage of diminishing the nutritive value of foods. The time and temperature used depend on the following factors: type and number of microorganisms present, the size/volume of the container, initial temperature, and properties of the food product.

Extrusion is mostly used for processing cereal and pet food/feed that contain protein. Pasta and processed meat products are produced with cold extrusion, meat analogues and some pet foods are produced with medium extrusion, while expanded snack products, breakfast cereals, and textured vegetable proteins are produced with high temperatures (thermoplastic extrusion). Thermoplastic extrusion is considered a high-temperature, short-time process and is mostly used for processing raw materials such as corn, wheat, rice, and soy. The advantages of thermoplastic extrusion are: versatility, low costs, high production yields, good quality products, and no by-products (Steel et al., 2012).

2.3.2.1. Heat processing using hot air

Heat processing using hot air includes dehydration by drying using heated air or heated surfaces and baking and roasting by using direct/indirect, continuous/semi-continuous heating ovens. When drying foods it is necessary to use the right combination of warm temperature, low humidity, and air currents. Basic pHs (8–10), trehalose, sucrose, but not glycine-betaine, improve persistence of Salmonella sp. during dehydration (Gruzdev et al., 2012). Drying food is a slow process taking six or more hours when using a dehydrator or eight or more hours in the oven. In addition, vegetables require a blanching step for enzyme neutralization and to maintain good flavor and color. The time required for drying foods depends on the drying method and type of food. The development and persistence of pathogenic microorganisms in food are affected by relative air humidity fluctuations. When dried on paper disks, Salmonella survives for 24 months at 4°C, 35 days at 25°C, and 70 days at 35°C (Hiramatsu et al., 2005). Taking into account that all tested desiccated strains in paper disks have been shown to survive for 5 h after exposure at 70°C (Hiramatsu et al., 2005), there is still a problem regarding storage of desiccated food. Gruzdev et al. (2012) showed ∼5-log reduction in numbers of dehydrated Salmonella after 100 weeks at 4°C. In addition, only ∼50% of viable cells were stained in a viability test, suggesting bacterial transition into a viable-but-not-cultivable state. Furthermore, these bacteria are adapted to desiccation stress (Gruzdev et al., 2012). All these observations account for shortening the dehydration time in order to assure the safety of food.

Baking and roasting involve simultaneous heat and mass transfer by using direct/indirect, continuous/semi-continuous heating ovens. Heat is transferred into the food from hot surfaces and air while vapors are transferred from the food to air. Because baking takes place at atmospheric pressure and moisture is not retained in the food, the temperature inside the food does not exceed 100°C. However, the more rapid heating and higher temperatures used in baking enhance eating qualities and retain moisture in the bulk of the food products (cake, bread, meats, etc.) (Fellows, 2000).

Heat processing using hot oils can use shallow (or contact) frying and deep fat frying. Frying time and temperature during the heat processing of protein-rich foods, such as meat, were associated with the generation of potent mutagens and carcinogens. For example, the LC–MS/MS levels of heterocyclic aromatic amines, such as 2-amino-3, 8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), 2-amino-3,4,8-trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx), and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo [4,5-b] pyridine (PhIP), in fried pork increased with frying time and temperature, but in addition, before frying, antioxidants (bamboo leaves, tea polyphenol, liquorice extract, phytic acid, and sodium isoascorbate) had a good inhibitory effect on the generation of heterocyclic aromatic amines (Zhang et al., 2013). Moderate cooking temperatures of meat (150°C) aided in the formation of 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ), and increased temperature yield formation of MeIQx, DiMeIQx and PhIP (Skog et al., 1995). Also, high-temperature processing