Australian Mammals: Biology and Captive Management: Biology and Captive Management

By Stephen Jackson

This authoritative volume represents a complete and comprehensive guide to the husbandry of Australian marsupials and other mammals. Australian Mammals: Biology and Captive Management dedicates a chapter to each group of animals including the platypus, the echidna, carnivorous marsupials, numbats, bandicoots and bilbies, koalas, wombats, possums and gliders, macropods, bats, rodents and the dingo.

For each animal group the following information is covered: Biology; Housing; Capture and restraint; Transport; Diet; Breeding; Artificial rearing; and Behaviour and behavioural enrichment.

The book provides a complete literature review of all known information on the biology of each group of animals and brings information on their biology in the wild into captive situations. Also, for the first time, it provides practical guidelines for hand-rearing, and has been extensively reviewed by zookeepers and veterinarians to incorporate the most up-to-date information and techniques.

Australian Mammals: Biology and Captive Management provides practical guidance for zoo-keepers, veterinarians, zoologists, researchers and students.

Winner of the 2004 Whitley Medal.

Shortlisted in the Scholarly Reference section of the 2004 Australian Awards for Excellence in Educational Publishing.

• Language: English
• Publisher: CSIRO PUBLISHING
• Release date: Oct 1, 2007
• ISBN: 9780643098589

Stephen Jackson

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AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS

BIOLOGY AND CAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS

BIOLOGY AND CAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

Stephen Jackson

© CSIRO 2003

All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO PUBLISHING for all permission requests.

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry

Jackson, Stephen M.

Australian mammals: Biology and captive management

Bibliography.

ISBN 0 643 06635 7.

1. Mammals – Australia. 2. Captive mammals. I. Title.

599.0994

Available from

CSIRO PUBLISHING

150 Oxford Street (PO Box 1139)

Collingwood VIC 3066

Australia

Cover photos courtesy Stephen Jackson, Esther Beaton and Nick Alexander

Set in Minion and Optima

Cover and text design by James Kelly

Typeset by Desktop Concepts Pty Ltd

Printed in Australia by Ligare

CONTENTS

Foreword

Introduction

Acknowledgments

Outline

1 Platypus

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Nest boxes

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

6.4     Estimating the amount of food consumed

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Grooming

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

9.11   Suitability to captivity

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive status

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nesting requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation and incubation periods

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age at removal from parent

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

Addendum 1 Introducing platypus to unfamiliar facilities and/or other platypus

Addendum 2 Bringing platypus in from the wild

Addendum 3 Rescued platypus

2 Echidnas

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Nest boxes

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive status

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first breeding and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nest/hollow requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation and incubation periods

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age of removal from parents

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene and special precautions

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

3 Carnivorous marsupials

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Nest boxes

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive status

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first breeding and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nesting requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age at removal from parent

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

4 Numbats

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Nest boxes

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive status

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first breeding and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nest/hollow requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age of removal from parents

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster mothers

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

Addendum 1  Sustainable termite harvesting techniques

Addendum 2  Artificial diet preparation of egg custard

Addendum 3  Example of 100% termite diet prior to breeding season (November–March) in numbats

5 Bandicoots

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Nest boxes

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive status

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first breeding and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nest/hollow requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age of removal from parents

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene and special precautions

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

6 Koalas

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

7.7     Koala handling and photographing by the public

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

8.4     Chlamydia control

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive status

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nesting requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age at removal from parent

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

Addendum 1 The management of eucalyptus plantations for koala fodder

7 Wombats

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Nest boxes

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

9.11   Suitability to captivity

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive condition

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first breeding and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nesting requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age of removal from parents

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

8 Possums and gliders

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Nest boxes

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity cycles

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive status

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nesting requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age at removal from parent

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

9 Macropods

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive status

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nesting requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age at removal from parent

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

10 Bats

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Roosting boxes

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags and other containment devices

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

9.11   Suitability to captivity

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive condition

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Roosting requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age at removal from parents

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

11 Rodents

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Nest sites

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   interspecific compatibility

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive condition

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Nest/hollow requirements

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age at removal from parents

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene and special precautions

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

12 Dingoes

1 Introduction

2 Taxonomy

2.1     Nomenclature

2.2     Subspecies

2.3     Recent synonyms

2.4     Other common names

3 Natural history

3.1     Morphometrics

3.2     Distribution and habitat

3.3     Conservation status

3.4     Diet in the wild

3.5     Longevity

4 Housing requirements

4.1     Exhibit design

4.2     Holding area design

4.3     Spatial requirements

4.4     Position of enclosures

4.5     Weather protection

4.6     Temperature requirements

4.7     Substrate

4.8     Shelter

4.9     Enclosure furnishings

5 General husbandry

5.1     Hygiene and cleaning

5.2     Record keeping

5.3     Methods of identification

6 Feeding requirements

6.1     Captive diet

6.2     Supplements

6.3     Presentation of food

7 Handling and transport

7.1     Timing of capture and handling

7.2     Catching bags

7.3     Capture and restraint techniques

7.4     Weighing and examination

7.5     Release

7.6     Transport requirements

8 Health requirements

8.1     Daily health checks

8.2     Detailed physical examination

8.3     Known health problems

9 Behaviour

9.1     Activity

9.2     Social behaviour

9.3     Reproductive behaviour

9.4     Bathing

9.5     Behavioural problems

9.6     Signs of stress

9.7     Behavioural enrichment

9.8     Introductions and removals

9.9     Intraspecific compatibility

9.10   Interspecific compatibility

9.11   Socialisation

9.12   Training

10 Breeding

10.1     Mating system

10.2     Ease of breeding

10.3     Reproductive condition

10.4     Techniques used to control breeding

10.5     Occurrence of hybrids

10.6     Timing of breeding

10.7     Age at first and last breeding

10.8     Ability to breed every year

10.9     Ability to breed more than once per year

10.10   Whelping dens

10.11   Breeding diet

10.12   Oestrous cycle and gestation period

10.13   Litter size

10.14   Age at weaning

10.15   Age at removal from parents

10.16   Growth and development

11 Artificial rearing

11.1     Housing

11.2     Temperature requirements

11.3     Diet and feeding routine

11.4     Specific requirements

11.5     Data recording

11.6     Identification methods

11.7     Hygiene

11.8     Behavioural considerations

11.9     Use of foster species

11.10   Weaning

11.11   Rehabilitation and release procedures

12 Acknowledgments

References

Appendix 1 – Glossary

Appendix 2 – Enclosure sizes

Appendix 3 – Suppliers and Wildlife Agencies

Appendix 4 – Marsupial milk, milk formulas and comparison with monotreme and eutherian milk

Appendix 5 – Taking body measurements

Appendix 6 – General references

Bibliography

FOREWORD

As someone who has had more than twelve years experience within the zoo profession, it is with great pleasure that I pen these few words as a foreword to this excellent publication. As it says in the Introduction, there have been many previous books and publications on the subject of managing Australian animals in captivity. It is my belief that this current publication will prove to be a landmark publication and the reference for all those interested in maintaining animals in captivity. It matters not whether you are a zoo professional, research institution, wildlife carer, National Parks personnel or an enthusiastic amateur – this book is for you.

The book itself gives a most useful brief account of the historic record of each group in captivity before moving on to cover subjects including husbandry, diet, captive breeding, conservation status, milk supplements and replacements and recommendations for display and behavioural enrichment.

As I perused the various chapters, I was struck by the speed with which our knowledge of these animals is increasing and the need to centralise it in one publication. I was also struck by the fact that we have come a long way since Captain Nicolas Baudin, on his way back to Europe in 1803, fed his kangaroos wine and sugar, while the emus were force fed with pellets of rice mash and his officers gave up their cabins to accommodate the animals. The fact that so many survived this long voyage says more about the hardiness of the animals than the dietary knowledge of their carers.

Since the first specimens were taken back to Europe at the end of the 18th century, Australian animals, owing to their uniqueness, have held a fascination for people throughout the world. That the fascination has not abated, but indeed increased, is evidenced by the number of institutions throughout the world which are displaying a number of species and those which are asking to be allowed to display some of our unique fauna.

The original reasons for taking animals to the northern hemisphere was certainly to demonstrate our dominion over nature and to show these ‘curiosities’ to the public. Today, while curiosity and fascination still play a part in the desire to display Australian animals, more and more often the animals are being used for conservation education reasons and, on occasions, captive breeding.

It is unfortunate that Australia has had an unenviable record in species extinction during our first 150 years of settlement. It behoves us to maintain what we have left and to increase the numbers existing, both in the field and by captive management, of a number of species. Success is best achieved by increasing our knowledge of our fauna and undertaking public education programs. I am, of course, committed to the roles which zoos and like institutions can play in ensuring that conservation breeding, research and conservation education programs are undertaken.

This book contains the work and knowledge of a large number of experts and professionals, many of whom I have come to know personally over the years. I believe that it will become a ‘must have’ volume on the library shelves of people seriously interested in the future of Australian mammals.

I commend Stephen Jackson, CSIRO Publishing and all those involved in this excellent undertaking and I commend the book to you, the reader.

Ed McAlister AO

President

World Association of Zoos and Aquariums

Adelaide

November 2003

INTRODUCTION

Australian mammals have been held in captivity in Australia and throughout the world for over 200 years. Although originally kept as sources of curiosity, entertainment and novelty, today they are increasingly held to educate the public about their biology and threatened status, as part of captive breeding programs, for hand-rearing following the death of their mothers, for rehabilitation after injury or illness, for research and as pets.

Captive facilities need to optimize conditions for the animals by allowing them to feel secure, providing high quality food, allowing them to undertake a large range of natural solitary and social behaviours, allowing them to be easily observed for husbandry and education purposes and allowing the animals to be caught with minimum stress. The husbandry of Australia’s mammals in captivity is an expanding field, with earlier literature based largely on first-hand experiences of enclosure sizes, captive diet, behaviour and breeding. While this information is highly valuable, there has been a need to bring together aspects of the biology (including wild diet, social behaviour, reproduction and nesting requirements) to maximize appropriate conditions for these species in captivity. Publications such as the landmark Monotremes and Marsupials (Collins 1973), The Management of Australian Mammals in Captivity (Evans 1982) and more recently the Care and Handling of Australian Native Animals (Hand 1990) have made great advances in our knowledge of the husbandry of Australian mammals, though they do not include all mammalian taxonomic groups nor attempt to match the general principles of husbandry with their wild biology and, with the exception of Collins (1973), nor do they have a standardized outline for information coverage.

The aim of this book is to provide detailed information on the biology and husbandry of all Australia’s native terrestrial mammals. It is hoped that zookeepers, students, researchers, veterinarians, wildlife carers and the ever-expanding group of private individuals that keep Australian mammals as pets will find the information on general biology, captive management, behaviour, breeding, the extensive reference list and bibliography, useful. Although primarily focused on the management of Australian mammals in captivity, various aspects are of use to field biologists including capture and restraint techniques, aging techniques and behaviour and breeding information. It is also hoped that this volume will stimulate further improvement in the standard of husbandry of Australian mammals.

Despite attempts to incorporate as much published and unpublished information as possible in this book, there are clearly numerous gaps in our knowledge that need to be filled. Areas of future development include fine-tuning diets, enclosure designs, area requirements, capture and restraint techniques, behavioral enrichment methods and population management techniques. The availability of animals within captive facilities also allows the opportunity to undertake significant research including studies on taxonomy, aging techniques, digestive physiology, social and reproductive behaviour, reproductive physiology such as oestrous cycles and gestation periods, artificial reproductive techniques, milk composition and growth and development. With this in mind, this book is seen as the consolidation of information for the start of a journey rather than an end, and so readers are encouraged to further explore and record their knowledge of the captive management of Australian mammals.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Clearly a work of this scope cannot be created in isolation, and the help and assistance of numerous people in various institutions throughout Australia and overseas has been extensively utilized. In undertaking this project I have endeavoured to include the extraordinary knowledge that exists within the zoo industry and by numerous field biologists, by asking many people to read and make comments on various draft chapters or sections of chapters in order to improve them further. This information has proved invaluable in making this work of greater quality and giving a broader perspective than a particular institution and therefore is more widely useful. Although I have been responsible for putting the book together, the end product is a testament to the abundant skills and experience, generously shared, by people within the zoo industry and numerous biologists.

In particular I would like to thank those who coauthored or authored several of the chapters including Dr Melody Serena, Dr David Middleton, Vicki Power, Dr Cree Monaghan, Dr Katie Reid, Des Spittal and Liz Romer. Sincere thanks to Lindell Andrews, Wendy Gleen, Annette Gifford and Geoff Underwood for reviewing many of the chapters. I am very grateful to Annette Gifford, Jo Cowey and Louise Baume who reviewed the sections on artificial rearing and made numerous valuable suggestions. Professor Peter Temple-Smith and Dr David Taggart reviewed the sections on reproduction and several other chapters, which was greatly appreciated. Dr Michael Messer made numerous valuable comments on the content of milk of the various taxonomic groups and the use of various milk formulas. An enormous thankyou goes to the various veterinarians who read over the health requirements section of each chapter and made various suggestions to ensure the health information was accurate, including Dr Terri Bellamy, Dr David Blyde, Dr Rosie Booth, Dr Cree Monaghan, Dr Lee Skerratt and Dr Rupert Woods. Dr Ian Lugdon also read over all the health sections and made numerous valuable comments.

Many thanks to the staff at Taronga Zoo who read over various drafts of most chapters and allowed me to take photos from which most of the handling drawings were completed. The staff of the Zoological Parks and Gardens Board of Victoria, including Michael de Oleveira, Professor Peter Temple-Smith and Gary Slater provided valuable support for this project. I am also grateful for the assistance of Megan Temple who photocopied a number of the references. Acknowledgments for individuals who helped in the different chapters can be found at the end of each chapter. Thanks also to those who helped review the whole document including William Meikle and Matthew Crane. Many thanks also to Nick Alexander and Briana Elwood from CSIRO Publishing for all their hard work and patience in putting this work together. Finally many thanks also to my parents and Kerstin McPherson for her patience and encouragement in writing this and for her assistance in finding many references.

OUTLINE

Each chapter covers a separate taxonomic group of Australian mammals and an effort has been made to make the scope of information covered as uniform as possible by using the husbandry manual outline described in Jackson (2003). The common names and taxonomy used in this book follows Strahan (1995) except where stated. The references for each chapter are found in the reference section at the end of the book with additional references that may be useful being found in the bibliography.

1 PLATYPUS

Stephen Jackson,

Melody Serena and

David Middleton

1. Introduction

The platypus and the echidnas, that make up the Australian monotremes, are unique mammals due to their egg laying, appearance and lifestyles and are of enormous community and scientific interest. In particular, the unique features and secretive lifestyle of the platypus have made it a longstanding focus of attention.

Platypus appear to have been first held in captivity by Maule (1832) in 1831 who captured a female and two young that lived for two weeks on worms, bread and milk. In 1832 and 1833 Bennett (1834a, 1834b) held several animals including two young that survived five weeks on bread soaked in water, chopped egg and finely minced meat. Subsequently, platypus were held by Verreaux (1848) who fed them a diet of rice and egg yolk, while Burrell (1927) was the first person to display them to the Australian public – in 1910 for three months at the Sydney Zoological Gardens when it was at Moore Park (prior to its move where it became Taronga Zoo). Budapest Zoo was the first overseas zoo to receive a live animal in 1913 when two animals were sent there (Collins 1973). In 1922 an animal was transferred to New York Zoological Park where it lived for 49 days and was on display for one hour per day (Joseph 1922; Burrell 1927). The only other platypus sent overseas was in 1947 and 1958 when a male and two females were sent (on each occasion) to the New York Zoological Society (Fleay 1980). Early attempts to keep platypus in captivity resulted in them dying after only a few weeks or months, and it was not until 1932 that the first long-term maintenance and display of platypus occurred at Healesville Sanctuary, Victoria, Australia when an animal was kept for several years (Eadie 1935). Little effort was spent attempting to breed platypus until the success of Fleay (1944) in the summer of 1943/44 at Healesville Sanctuary. Although platypus have been maintained for extended periods in a number of institutions in recent years, in a truly captive environment, successful breeding resulting in live young is very rare. Since platypus first came into captivity until the end of 2002/2003 breeding season, captive platypus have only been bred successfully on three other occasions (Holland and Jackson 2002; A. Battaglia and M. Hawkins pers. comm.; pers. obs.). Today only seven Australian zoos maintain platypus (Lees and Johnson 2002; pers. obs.).

Platypus exhibits and management of the species follow similar lines in institutions across Australia, however, new approaches are continually being developed and used as more information on platypus husbandry and biology becomes available.

Captive management of platypus has an essential role to play in biological research as well as conservation-based educational displays. At the same time, the perceived poor survival of captive platypus has generated concern amongst managers, researchers, conservationists and the general community. Accordingly, there is a need to ensure that impeccable standards for captive management of platypus are developed. Whilst many standards may be universally applicable it would be false to say that we have the definitive ‘recipe’ for exhibiting, maintaining and breeding platypus in captivity.

2. Taxonomy

2.1 Nomenclature

The platypus was originally described as Platypus anatinus by Shaw (1799). However as that name was already used for a genus of beetles, the term Ornithorhynchus was used. This is the name used by Blumenbach (1800) to describe the platypus when he called it Ornithorhynchus paradoxus.

Class: Mammalia

Subclass: Prototheria

Order: Monotremata

Family: Ornithorhynchidae

Genus species: Ornithorhynchus anatinus

Etymology

Ornithorhynchus – bird snout

anatinus – duck like

Platypus – flat foot

2.2 Subspecies

None

2.3 Recent synonyms

Synonyms of the platypus can be found in Mahoney (1988).

2.4 Other common names

In the past it has been called a water mole.

3. Natural history

3.1 Morphometrics

The platypus is one of Australia’s most easily recognisable animals. It is approximately 40–50 cm long, has a dense waterproof fur over all of its body except the bill and feet, and a bill that is soft and pliable. It has webbed feet and the males possess a venomous spur on the inside of their hind legs.

Size varies with location, with a general north to south cline variation in body size, the smallest animals being found in Queensland and the largest ones in New South Wales west of the Divide and in Tasmania (Carrick 1995; Connolly and Obendorf 1998). Length is measured from tip of bill to tip of tail (Carrick 1995) (Table 1). There is a distinct sexual dimorphism with males being larger and heavier than females. The platypus is easily distinguished from all other mammals by its soft flexible bill, webbed feet and aquatic lifestyle.

3.2 Distribution and habitat

The platypus occurs in freshwater streams along the east coast of Australia from north Queensland to South Australia (including Kangaroo Island, where they were introduced) and Tasmania (including King Island) and in streams running westward from the Great Dividing Range (Fig. 1).

It is also found in occasionally brackish streams, creeks, lakes and ponds. These vary from shallow creeks with pools and riffles to large deep rivers. When out of the water, platypus live in burrows that are dug into the bank of the water body. Burrows are usually short and simple in construction with the entrance either above or below the water level, and often under a tangle of tree roots (Carrick 1995).

3.3 Conservation status

Throughout its distribution the platypus is relatively common and considered to be at low risk of extinction.

3.4 Diet in the wild

In the wild, platypus feed on a wide variety of freshwater adult and larval invertebrates including dragonflies and caddisflies (Table 2). The platypus has a complex bill apparatus that it uses to sift smaller prey items. Platypus appear to find their food by detecting the weak electrical impulses of invertebrates when they move their exoskeletons. Once food is picked up and sifted, it is stored in cheek pouches, and is then thoroughly masticated while the animal floats on the surface of the water.

Table 1. Body length and weight for different locations in Australia.

Figure 1. Distribution of the platypus. After Grant (1995) with permission of UNSW Press.

3.5 Longevity

3.5.1 Wild

Capture information from the Shoalhaven River has shown that a female who was captured as an adult was at least 15 years old and one captured as a juvenile is at least 16 years old. Four males in the population that were captured as adults were over six years of age and another animal was captured as a juvenile seven years ago (T. Grant pers. comm.).

3.5.2 Captivity

In captivity platypus have been known to live for very long periods. Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary has held an animal to 21 years of age, while the Australian Reptile Park had an animal which lived to 18 years of age and Healesville Sanctuary had one live to 17 years of age; David Fleay’s Fauna Park and Taronga Zoo have both had animals live over 15 years.

Table 2. Food of the platypus in the wild, from a study at the upper Shoalhaven River, NSW.

3.5.3 Techniques to determine the age of adults

Platypus are difficult to age once they have achieved the adult body weight. In males the spurs show wear which can be used to estimate age (Fig. 2). Females 8-10 months of age have a very small spur, about 1-2 mm long that is whitish or brownish. Older than that, they usually do not have a spur (Grant 1995).

Sex/Age Class Using Spur Development (Fig. 2)

a   Juvenile <9 months of age. Spur completely covered by horny sheath. This includes about four months burrow life and five months after leaving the burrow.

b   Juvenile in the early stage of exsheathment at about 9-10 months of age.

c   Juvenile in later stage of exsheathment at about 10-12 months. As previous, except superficial white layer chipping away from spur proper.

d   Recently exsheathed adult spur at approximately 12-24 months of age. Spur curved and sharp, 14-18 mm long; basal 35-50% covered by pink or whitish collar of skin (retracts with age).

e   Spur of an adult male at more than 24 months of age. Skin collar at spur base ± entirely retracted. Spur progressively blunted and yellow with age.

f   Spur of an old adult.

Figure 2. Male spur morphology changes and aging in male platypus.

Derived from Temple-Smith (1973, pers. comm.) and Grant (1995) with permission of UNSW Press.

4. Housing requirements

4.1 Exhibit design

Platypus husbandry has been a developing art since 1831 when Lauderdale Maule maintained a female and two young in captivity for two weeks. However, since the early 1900s a string of very dedicated and determined platypus enthusiasts have identified problems in keeping platypus in captivity for long periods of time.

Table 3. Facilities displaying platypus.

At present, seven zoological institutions hold platypus in their collections (Table 3). Their facilities are fundamentally quite similar, but with large differences in the buildings within which these facilities are housed.

The captive environment should make provision for the following:

Animals can engage in natural foraging behaviour on live food items.

A selection of protected feeding and grooming sites are provided in secure locations.

The aquatic environment is a dynamic one in terms of water movement patterns and flow rate.

Water and nest box temperatures are maintained within the range normally experienced by platypus in the wild.

Tunnel systems are modelled on wild tunnels, eg with respect to length and internal dimensions to join the feed tanks, nest boxes and displays.

Opportunities are provided for behavioural interaction with other platypus. N.B. the Australian Reptile Park has found individuals to be more stable and adjusted when housed by themselves.

Nest boxes are comfortable and contain dry, clean nesting material.

The environment includes a variety of natural objects, such as logs, rocks, soil and plants.

The aquatic environment should be maintained to a high standard of clarity and cleanliness. Tank water should be changed frequently if recirculating filters are not incorporated into the system. Filter inlets should be shielded to prevent platypus becoming trapped.

Facilities should be insulated from electrical currents, excessive noise and vibration, eg that associated with pumps and filtering equipment.

Tunnels used by platypus should conform to the following criteria:

Should be at least 1 m long, and measure at least 6–7 cm high and 9–10 cm wide internally. These correspond to the minimum documented dimensions of tunnels in the wild (Burrell 1927; Grant 1983a; Serena 1994). In practice, it is recommended that tunnels be at least 15 cm high and 15 cm wide internally to reduce the potential for fur loss due to rubbing.

Be constructed of materials that minimize abrasion to feet, bills and fur while providing traction underfoot.

Slope at an angle 30° or less.

The horizontal distance from the water’s edge to burrow chambers should not exceed 4 m and ideally it should be about 1.5 m (Serena et al. 1998).

Enable water that enters tunnels with platypus to escape through drainage and/or evaporation.

Have interiors that are accessible via secure lids/ hatches for inspection or cleaning purposes.

Be rainproof (if located outdoors).

Be sufficiently well shaded and/or insulated that interiors do not exceed ambient air temperatures on sunny days (do not exceed 25°C).

Be fitted with sliding internal doors (or comparable devices) so the tunnel can be closed off at both the nest box and tank ends. They should also have more than one entry/exit to avoid dead ends.

In the case of tunnels leading to breeding nest boxes, provision should be made for females to block burrows with soil ‘plugs’, particularly at the point where tunnels and nest boxes meet. Therefore females should be provided with a supply of soil (eg stored in one or more chambers opening off the side of the tunnel) sufficient to create at least one tightly packed plug up to 30 cm in length (Burrell 1927).

Breeding females should be provided with a substantial volume of floating and submerged nesting material in tanks connected to breeding nest boxes or earth bank burrow. Based on Burrell (1927), Fleay (1944), Gilfedder et al. (1992) and Holland and Jackson (2002), nesting material should include both grass and eucalypt leaves.

A dry ledge or section of bank (approximate minimum length and width = 0.6 m × 0.25 m) should be provided directly below the tank end of nesting tunnel entrances for resting and grooming purposes. At least one additional dry resting site (ledge, emergent rock or log, or section of bank) should be provided per tank. Enough dry area should be provided in total that all platypus using the tank can rest out of the water simultaneously, without having to sit next to each other.

Figure 3. Holding facility for captive platypus. Taken from Booth (1994) with permission from the author.

Each tank should have at least one section of overhanging bank or comparable cover (approximate minimum length and width = 0.6 m x 0.25 m) under which platypus can float comfortably while consuming food at the water’s surface. At least one additional protected resting site per tank should be provided underwater.

4.2 Holding area design

The layout of a holding facility should be designed to minimize disturbance from the surrounding area and to allow ease of access and traffic flow. An example of a holding facility is shown in Figure 3. This figure also shows the fundamental requirements of all platypus facilities.

Included in the area should be at least one feed tank with associated tunnels and nest boxes and adequate storage, sinks, taps and hoses for cleaning. The feed tanks will need to be as large as is practicable and the tunnels should meet minimum requirements as far as internal dimensions and length are concerned.

A choice of nest box sizes and construction is desirable to give the platypus variety. Nest boxes can be plywood or terracotta and filled with dirt or nesting material in any combination. Taps and hoses should be positioned for ease of use, as should drains and sumps. Minimize disturbance from surrounding areas but also from within your holding area, eg you should not need to step on or over the tunnel system. Water pipes and drainage pipes should be insulated to minimize noise or vibration transfer.

4.3 Spatial requirements

Factors relating to spatial requirements include the number of animals sharing the enclosure, the number of bodies of water they share and, obviously, the size and shape of the water body. Platypus should have access to at least one aquatic area with a minimum area of 6 m² and a water depth attaining at least 0.4 m. Each extra animal should have an additional water area of 4 m².

4.4 Position of enclosures

If the feed tanks are held outdoors they should be in an area that is not too exposed and ideally has good overhead vegetation cover so the platypus do not feel too exposed while feeding.

4.5 Weather protection

Where possible, some tunnels and nest boxes should be either under a veranda or inside a building to protect them from rain entering the tunnel and nest box system. Any water from rain entering the tunnels or nest boxes should be able to be drained away quickly. It is also important to protect the animals from extremes of temperature (above 25°C). Minimum temperatures should not normally be a problem as long as adequate nest boxes and nesting material are provided.

4.6 Temperature requirements

Water and nest box temperatures should normally be maintained below 25°C. This is based on the thermoneutral zone for resting platypus on land being 20–25°C (Grant and Dawson 1978a), with active animals likely to be most comfortable at or below the lower end of this range due to the production of metabolic heat associated with muscular activity. Environmental temperatures should under no circumstances exceed 32°C, based on the fact that the resting body temperature of platypus is 32–33°C (Grant and Dawson 1978b), and the observation that platypus may ‘faint’ when exposed to air temperatures of 35°C for as little as 17 minutes (Martin 1902). Krueger et al. (1992) found that platypus spent more time resting than active in water at low temperatures (<16°C), while the maximum ratio of active to resting behaviours in the water occurred when the water temperature was 16–18°C. They also found that platypus showed a steady increase in the proportion of time spent resting on land as temperatures increased from 10–12°C to 22–26°C.

4.7 Substrate

Substrate in the tanks should be non-porous and easily cleanable. The type of substrate will be partially determined by whether or not filters are used and the type of filter being used. Sand, fish tank gravel, large river rocks or even a fibreglass or concrete base to the tank with no other substrate have been used with varying success. Leftover food is more difficult to remove from sand and fish tank gravel, while a concrete or fibreglass floor is easy to clean but looks unnatural.

4.8 Nest boxes

Each adult should have several nest boxes supplied that are large enough to accommodate two adult platypus and a substantial volume of nesting material. About 75% of the nest box volume should be filled with nesting material. Traditionally, seagrass has been used as nesting material, however it is expensive, often not easily obtained and comes from salt water. Increasingly, sphagnum moss has been used as it holds moisture better but does not get soggy like seagrass when damp. The nest boxes should have a non-abrasive internal surface and be fitted with a hinged lid to facilitate human access for the purpose of inspecting animals or replacing nesting material. Lids should latch securely when closed.

Breeding nest boxes should be large enough to accommodate one adult platypus and as many as three well-grown juveniles. If soil is provided to allow animals to dig their own nesting chamber then the ratio of sand to clay should be such that it is not too dry, and should hold its structure. The soil structure can be enhanced by making it open to the weather and allowing vegetation to grow on top of it.

4.9 Enclosure furnishings

Anything put into the enclosures should be non-toxic, not sharp, be designed not to trap or entangle the animals and be as non-abrasive as possible. Enclosure furnishings can include plant material such as logs, fern fronds, tree branches, rocks or river pebbles. All of these items should be cleaned where appropriate and checked to ensure they have not come in contact with any toxins, eg weedkiller. Branches should be weathered or soaked elsewhere to remove the tannins before they are put into the tank.

5. General husbandry

5.1 Hygiene and cleaning

It is critical to maximize animal health through the application of high standards of hygiene and effective quarantine procedures. The senior platypus keeper should have a minimum of five years experience working with captive wildlife. Other keepers should have a minimum of two years experience working with captive wildlife (or equivalent) prior to assignment to platypus care, and undergo a training period under the direct supervision of the senior platypus keeper.

All tanks frequented by platypus should be cleaned and filled with mains water, rainwater, pumped spring water or creek water. Water in display tanks should be filtered at the rate of one complete water change for at least every six hours that animals are on display. Display tanks should be drained and thoroughly cleaned (tank and furniture scrubbed and hosed down) at least once per week, depending on the filtering system and water quality.

Chemical agents should not be used to clean tanks or tunnels used by platypus.

Base substrate in display tanks should be replaced when it becomes soiled.

Off-display tanks should be drained, cleaned and refilled daily if not equipped with a system for filtering recirculated water. Cleaning other off-display facilities such as natural ponds may not be necessary.

The condition of nesting material in non-breeding nest boxes should be checked regularly. The presence of damp nesting material is not of major concern, as long as it is not soaking wet and the platypus also has access to dry material.

Tunnels and nest boxes should not be scrubbed or hosed unless fouling occurs. Every effort should be made to allow excess water to drain or evaporate from the tunnel and nest environment. Drainage holes need to be checked for any blockages.

Platypus facilities should be operated as a quarantine area. Whether originating from the wild or another institution, newly arrived platypus should:

→  Be thoroughly examined by an experienced veterinarian.

→  Be maintained in isolation for a minimum period of three weeks before coming into contact with established animals and their enclosures.

By doing the same thing at the same time each day the animals very quickly habituate. Weighing, examining and putting the animals on display, and even hand feeding, can be achieved by developing a ‘routine’. Platypus can also get used to things such as human traffic noise and being observed all day, if these occur on a regular basis.

5.2 Record keeping

It is important to establish a system whereby the health, condition and reproductive status of captive platypus are routinely monitored. Records should be kept of:

Identification numbers; all individuals should be identifiable

Any veterinary examination conducted

Treatments provided

Behavioural changes or problems

Reproductive behaviour or condition

Weights and measurements

Changes in diet

Movements of individuals between enclosures or institutions

Births with dam and sire if known

Deaths with post mortem results.

The collection of information on each individual’s physical and behavioural patterns can contribute greatly to the husbandry of this species. It also allows the history of each individual to be transferred to other institutions if required and greatly facilitates a cooperative approach to data collection amongst institutions. Most of the larger institutions use ARKS (for general information on births, transfers and deaths), SPARKS (breeding studbook for species) and MedARKS (veterinary information). These systems have been developed by the International Species Information System (ISIS), which is part of the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) software. As these are standardized there is a high degree of efficiency in transferring information between institutions.

5.2.1 Facilities that handle platypus daily

The following information should be collected:

Dry body weight of animal to the nearest 10 g (or more accurately if feasible)

Relevant environmental temperatures including maximum and minimum

Location of the animal in the nest box/tunnel system (early in the morning) and identity of tank(s) used for display/feeding if more than one is available

Tail Volume Index (TVI) (see Section 8.2.2)

Nature and extent of non-routine handling (including veterinary procedures)

Nature and extent of unusual noise or other disturbance in or near the platypus facility.

5.2.2 Facilities that do not handle platypus daily

The following data should be recorded on a monthly basis:

Dry body weight of animal to the nearest 10 g (or more accurately if feasible)

Tail Volume Index (TVI) (see Section 8.2.2)

Maximum tail thickness at the level of the cloaca

A range of blood parameters, as listed in Section 8

Water pH and conductivity in display and off-display tanks

Animal’s general demeanour

Temperatures of water, air and nest boxes.

In addition, activity levels and behaviour can be monitored as follows:

Key behaviours of active individuals should be observed and quantified. This work may involve the use of time-lapse video monitoring (eg for nocturnal observations), or rely on trained volunteers (eg during display periods). This is particularly important for paired individuals during the breeding season.

Activity budgets should be monitored as required (eg by means of automated, tunnel-mounted activity recording system) to provide information relevant to assessing the health or reproductive status of targeted individuals.

All information should be recorded in a standardized format on data sheets and,where possible, incorporated into a computerized database to facilitate retrieval, analysis, and the preparation of internal reports and technical papers.

5.3 Methods of identification

5.3.1 Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) tags

PIT tags are implanted subcutaneously between the scapulae of individuals and provide a permanent method of identification (Grant and Whittington 1991). There is the potential for tags to pop out of the skin where they went in, though Grant (pers. comm.) has found no incidence of this occurring in the 200+ animals in which tags have been inserted. Sealing the entry wound with tissue glue (Vetbond®) or similar fast setting adhesive will ensure they stay in place. To confirm identification the animal needs to be caught and scanned with a PIT tag reader.

5.3.2 Tattoos

Tattoos on the inside of the upper or lower frontal shield have been used effectively.

5.3.3 Visual identification

Each animal has a unique skin pigment pattern on the underside of its bill, so a drawing or photograph is useful for identification. However, in some individuals the use of bill patterns is not possible as many have either all black or all white bills (T. Grant pers. comm.)

5.3.4 Freeze banding

Freeze branding has been used by Grant and Whittington (1991), but was found to be ineffective and is not recommended.

5.3.5 Leg bands

Leg bands are not recommended due to wearing on the skin and spur (in males) (Grant and Whittington 1991).

6. Feeding requirements

6.1 Captive diet

Captive platypus need a diet that caters for individual preferences in quantity and type of food, so it should be varied, nutritious, encourage natural foraging behaviours and minimize obesity. The diet should include as high a proportion of live food as possible. The next best alternative is food that is freshly frozen for storage purposes and thawed just before being offered to platypus. Yabbies (freshwater crayfish, Cherax destructor) should be frozen for a maximum of four months before being used as food. Mean daily food consumption by platypus in captivity has been found to vary between 14.9–27.8% of body weight throughout the year (Krueger et al. 1992). These figures are similar to those estimated for platypus in the wild in Tasmania where the mean food intake was estimated to be 19% of body mass (Munks et al. 2000).

The daily captive diet for adults and weaned juveniles should normally include an adequate selection from the following items (contingent upon availability and palatability and dependant on various state legislative requirements):

Earthworms

Yabbies (live and/or frozen)

Mealworms

Fly pupae

Freshwater shrimp

Prawns

Goldfish

Tubifex worms

Trout fingerlings

Aquatic insect larvae

Crickets

Tadpoles

Cockroaches

Blackworms

Platypus should be fed at times that best suit individual activity patterns. In general, this should involve providing most food in late afternoon for overnight consumption. Display animals should be provided with a minimum of 10% of their expected daily food intake for each two hours that they are on display.

During the off-display period, animals should be provided with their total expected daily food intake.

Consideration should be given to systematically varying the proportion of different foods offered to platypus on different days, thereby providing a temporal dimension of variability to their diet.

6.2 Supplements

No supplements are required if a variety of food items are offered.

6.3 Presentation of food

Food is always placed in the water into either the display tank or separate feeding tanks (if water clarity or filtration is a problem). As with any animal, food should be fresh and not contaminated, there should be variety of food types offered and leftovers need to be removed every few days. The length of time before removal depends on the filter system and the water temperature. Things like yabbies and mealworms will go ‘off’ if left in water.

6.4 Estimating the amount of food

consumed

6.4.1 Food provided in display tanks

1. Goldfish:

Fed 1–3 times per week (10 fish per animal per day)

Fish are counted and placed into the display tank

At the end of the display period the remaining fish are counted to determine the quantity consumed.

2. Fly pupae:

Fed daily (20–40 g per animal)

Pupae are weighed on an electronic balance and placed into the display tank

At the end of the display period the remaining fly pupae are estimated

Occasionally remaining pupae are netted out and weighed to determine the accuracy of the estimate.

3. Yabbies:

Ad lib yabbies

Yabbies are counted and placed into the display tank

At the end of the display period the number of yabbies eaten is calculated by counting the number of exoskeletons in the tank.

6.4.2 Food provided in off-display tanks

1. Yabbies:

Fed daily (10–70 per animal depending on size of yabbies)

Feeding tanks are drained and hosed out the following morning

Remaining food items are collected in a fine mesh basket placed under the outlet drainpipe; the number of yabbies eaten is calculated by counting the number of thoraxes present

All leftover yabby material is collected, washed, drained (for 5 minutes) and weighed to determine the weight of food consumed.

2. Mealworms:

Fed daily (50 g per animal)

Mealworms are weighed on an electronic balance and placed into feeding tank

Remaining mealworms are collected (as for yabbies) and quantity estimated; occasionally remaining mealworms are weighed to determine accuracy of estimate.

3. Earthworms:

Fed daily (50–120 g per animal).

Earthworms are generally supplied in a plastic container with some soil; worms are removed from the container with as little soil as possible and weighed on an electronic balance

Without further washing, worms are placed into the feeding tank

Earthworms are collected and weighed the following morning as for mealworms

Caution needs to be taken in weighing food as it gains weight after being in the water.

7. Handling and transport

7.1 Timing of capture and handling

Platypus are generally best caught while they are in their nest box or within the tunnel system. To minimize stress they should not be caught while they are swimming in any of the tanks.

7.2 Catching bags

Captured platypus can be held easily in a soft cotton catching bag, approximately 500 mm wide by 800 mm deep, such as a pillowcase. For longer-term holding or more accurate weighing platypus have been held in wet hessian sacks in which they are rolled up like a sausage and immobilized. However this method has proven unsatisfactory from field experience, as it can be quite abrasive to the feet and bill and potentially could result in overheating and suffocation (M. Serena pers. obs.).

7.3 Capture and restraint techniques

Platypus are generally caught by the tail from the nest box or tunnel system. Because of the male’s venomous spur, they should be handled only by the tail (Fig. 4). Female platypus are also best handled by the tail, as they are generally able to free themselves if held any other way.

Envenomation by the spur of the male causes immediate extreme pain, swelling and debilitation of the limb that has been spurred (Jamieson 1818; Spicer 1877; Tidswell 1906; Calaby 1968; Sutherland 1983; Fenner et al. 1992; Tonkin and Negrine 1994). If spurred the wound should be washed thoroughly using soap and water to remove free venom and contamination. A case report of a person envenomated on the right hand found traditional first aid analgesic methods such as narcotics were ineffective, however a regional nerve blockade using a right wrist block with 20 ml of plain 0.5% bupivicaine was dramatically effective (Fenner et al. 1992). After the blockade narcotic, analgesic support was required for several days. The patient spent six days in hospital, and the envenomated area remained painful, swollen and with little movement for three weeks; significant functional impairment of the hand persisted for three months (Fenner et al. 1992). The wounded area should be lightly bandaged and medical attention sought as soon as possible. The application of ice in