Deuteronomy

By Daniel I. Block

The NIV Application Commentary helps you communicate and apply biblical text effectively in today's context.

To bring the ancient messages of the Bible into today's world, each passage is treated in three sections:

• Original Meaning. Concise exegesis to help readers understand the original meaning of the biblical text in its historical, literary, and cultural context.
• Bridging Contexts. A bridge between the world of the Bible and the world of today, built by discerning what is timeless in the timely pages of the Bible.
• Contemporary Significance. This section identifies comparable situations to those faced in the Bible and explores relevant application of the biblical messages. The author alerts the readers of problems they may encounter when seeking to apply the passage and helps them think through the issues involved.

This unique, award-winning commentary is the ideal resource for today's preachers, teachers, and serious students of the Bible, giving them the tools, ideas, and insights they need to communicate God's Word with the same powerful impact it had when it was first written.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Zondervan
• Release date: Aug 21, 2012
• ISBN: 9780310492016

Daniel I. Block

Daniel I. Block (D.Phil, University of Liverpool) is Gunther H. Knoedler Professor of Old Testament, Wheaton College.

Book preview

DEUTERONOMY

THE NIV APPLICATION COMMENTARY

From biblical text … to contemporary life

DANIEL I. BLOCK

ZONDERVAN

The NIV Application Commentary: Deuteronomy

Copyright © 2012 by Daniel I. Block

Requests for information should be addressed to:

Zondervan, 3900 Sparks Dr. SE, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49546

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Block, Daniel Issac.

Deuteronomy / Daniel I. Block.

pages. cm.—(The NIV application commentary)

Includes bibliographical references and indexes.

ePub edition November 2014: ISBN 978-0-310-49201-6

ISBN: 978-0-310-21048-1

1. Bible. O.T. Deuteronomy—Commentaries. I. Title.

BS1275.53.B56 2012

222′.15077—dc23 2011049625

All Scripture quotations, unless oth erwise indicated, are taken from The Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by Biblica, Inc.® Used by permission. All rights reserved worldwide.

Any Internet addresses (websites, blogs, etc.) and telephone numbers in this book are offered as a resource. They are not intended in any way to be or imply an endorsement by Zondervan, nor does Zondervan vouch for the content of these sites and numbers for the life of this book.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other—except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher.

To my grandchildren,

Calvin, Brennig, Kate, Megan, Ella, and Eric

The LORD your God is a merciful God;

he will not abandon or destroy you

or forget the covenant with your forefathers.

(Deuteronomy 4:31)

Contents

How to Use This Commentary

Series Introduction

General Editor’s Preface

Author’s Preface

Abbreviations

Introduction to Deuteronomy

The Gospel According to Moses

Select Bibliography on Deuteronomy

Text and Commentary on Deuteronomy

Deuteronomy 1:1–5

Deuteronomy 1:6–18

Deuteronomy 1:19–2:1

Deuteronomy 2:2–23

Deuteronomy 2:24–3:11

Deuteronomy 3:12–29

Deuteronomy 4:1–8

Deuteronomy 4:9–31

Deuteronomy 4:32–40

Deuteronomy 4:41–43

Deuteronomy 4:44–5:5

Deuteronomy 5:6–22

Deuteronomy 5:23–6:3

Deuteronomy 6:4–9

Deuteronomy 6:10–25

Deuteronomy 7:1–26

Deuteronomy 8:1–20

Deuteronomy 9:1–24

Deuteronomy 9:25–10:11

Deuteronomy 10:12–11:1

Deuteronomy 11:2–28

Deuteronomy 11:29–32

Deuteronomy 12:1–14

Deuteronomy 12:15–28

Deuteronomy 12:29–13:18

Deuteronomy 14:1–21

Deuteronomy 14:22–29

Deuteronomy 15:1–18

Deuteronomy 15:19–23

Deuteronomy 16:1–17

Deuteronomy 16:18–17:13

Deuteronomy 17:14–20

Deuteronomy 18:1–8

Deuteronomy 18:9–22

Deuteronomy 19:1–14

Deuteronomy 19:15–21

Deuteronomy 20:1–20

Deuteronomy 21:1–9

Deuteronomy 21:10–23

Deuteronomy 22:1–12

Deuteronomy 22:13–30

Deuteronomy 23:1–14 [2–15]

Deuteronomy 23:15–25

Deuteronomy 24:1–5

Deuteronomy 24:6–22

Deuteronomy 25:1–16

Deuteronomy 25:17–19

Deuteronomy 26:1–15

Deuteronomy 26:16–19

Deuteronomy 27:1–26

Deuteronomy 28:1–29:1[28:69]

Deuteronomy 29:2–28[1–27]

Deuteronomy 29:29[28]–30:10

Deuteronomy 30:11–20

Deuteronomy 31:1–30

Deuteronomy 32:1–47

Deuteronomy 32:48–52

Deuteronomy 33:1–29

Deuteronomy 34:1–12

Scripture Index

Index of Ancient Literature Outside the Biblical Tradition

Ancient Jewish Sources

Selected Subject Index

Author Index

Notes

How to Use This Commentary

Thank you for purchasing the HarperCollins Christian Publishing eBook version of The NIV Application Commentary.

What is the difference between an eBook and a print book?

eBook versions contain all of the content and supplementary materials found in the original print versions and are optimized for navigation in the various apps and devices used for display. eReaders recognize text as one fluid string and are formatted in a single column. eReaders currently do not support the more complex layout seen in print version books. Therefore, some content may not appear in the same place as in the original print version, but it is structured consistently and uses hyperlinks to navigate between related content.

How do I use the eBook Table of Contents?

*Important Note: Be sure to consult your device manufacturer’s User’s Guide for device-specific navigation instructions.*

The Table of Contents is the primary navigation anchor to quickly access various parts of the eBook. It is generally formatted in the same order as the original print version and is hyperlinked as follows:

• Introductory Materials

• Commentary

• Indexes

Selecting an entry in the Table of Contents takes you to that location in the eBook. Selecting the title of that specific entry or using your device’s Back button or function takes you back to the main Table of Contents.

How do I navigate the content?

The eBook version of The NIV Application Commentary includes introductory materials, commentary, footnotes, scripture index, subject index, and author index. Hyperlinks to the materials appear in the Table of Contents as well as the main book text.

Introductory materials are hyperlinked directly to the content-specific location in the main text.

• Select the hyperlinked entry in the article or list to go to its location in the main text.

• Select the hyperlinked entry in the main text to go back to the article or list in the Table of Contents or use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection.

Footnotes in the Commentary are marked with small, hyperlinked numbers ¹ to access comments and citations.

• Select the hyperlinked number in the main text to the corresponding footnote.

• Select the hyperlinked number to the left of the footnote to go back to the main text or use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection.

Scripture Index includes hyperlinks directly to the Bible Verse citations in the main text.

• Select the Scripture Index from the Table of Contents.

• Select the hyperlinked page number 1 to go directly to the citation in the main text.

• Use the device’s Next Page/Previous Page button or function to scroll through the pages.

• Use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection

Subject and Author Indexes are hyperlinked directly to the content-specific location in the main text.

• Select an Index from the Table of Contents.

• Select the hyperlinked letter of the alphabet A to go to a corresponding list of entries.

• Use the device’s Next Page/Previous Page button or function to scroll through the entries.

• Select the hyperlinked page number 1 to go to the main text.

• Select the footnote entry marked with n1 to the corresponding footnote.

• Use the device’s Back button or function to go back to the last selection.

NOTES:

• The Bible Translation quoted by the authors in the main Commentary, unless otherwise indicated, is taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved.

NIV Application Commentary

Series Introduction

THE NIV APPLICATION COMMENTARY Series is unique. Most commentaries help us make the journey from our world back to the world of the Bible. They enable us to cross the barriers of time, culture, language, and geography that separate us from the biblical world. Yet they only offer a one-way ticket to the past and assume that we can somehow make the return journey on our own. Once they have explained the original meaning of a book or passage, these commentaries give us little or no help in exploring its contemporary significance. The information they offer is valuable, but the job is only half done.

Recently, a few commentaries have included some contemporary application as one of their goals. Yet that application is often sketchy or moralistic, and some volumes sound more like printed sermons than commentaries.

The primary goal of the NIV Application Commentary Series is to help you with the difficult but vital task of bringing an ancient message into a modern context. The series not only focuses on application as a finished product but also helps you think through the process of moving from the original meaning of a passage to its contemporary significance. These are commentaries, not popular expositions. They are works of reference, not devotional literature.

The format of the series is designed to achieve the goals of the series. Each passage is treated in three sections: Original Meaning, Bridging Contexts, and Contemporary Significance.

Original Meaning

THIS SECTION HELPS YOU understand the meaning of the biblical text in its original context. All of the elements of traditional exegesis—in concise form—are discussed here. These include the historical, literary, and cultural context of the passage. The authors discuss matters related to grammar and syntax and the meaning of biblical words. They also seek to explore the main ideas of the passage and how the biblical author develops those ideas.

After reading this section, you will understand the problems, questions, and concerns of the original audience and how the biblical author addressed those issues. This understanding is foundational to any legitimate application of the text today.

Bridging Contexts

THIS SECTION BUILDS A bridge between the world of the Bible and the world of today, between the original context and the contemporary context, by focusing on both the timely and timeless aspects of the text.

God’s Word is timely. The authors of Scripture spoke to specific situations, problems, and questions. The author of Joshua encouraged the faith of his original readers by narrating the destruction of Jericho, a seemingly impregnable city, at the hands of an angry warrior God (Josh. 6). Paul warned the Galatians about the consequences of circumcision and the dangers of trying to be justified by law (Gal. 5:2–5). The author of Hebrews tried to convince his readers that Christ is superior to Moses, the Aaronic priests, and the Old Testament sacrifices. John urged his readers to test the spirits of those who taught a form of incipient Gnosticism (1 John 4:1–6). In each of these cases, the timely nature of Scripture enables us to hear God’s Word in situations that were concrete rather than abstract.

Yet the timely nature of Scripture also creates problems. Our situations, difficulties, and questions are not always directly related to those faced by the people in the Bible. Therefore, God’s word to them does not always seem relevant to us. For example, when was the last time someone urged you to be circumcised, claiming that it was a necessary part of justification? How many people today care whether Christ is superior to the Aaronic priests? And how can a test designed to expose incipient Gnosticism be of any value in a modern culture?

Fortunately, Scripture is not only timely but timeless. Just as God spoke to the original audience, so he still speaks to us through the pages of Scripture. Because we share a common humanity with the people of the Bible, we discover a universal dimension in the problems they faced and the solutions God gave them. The timeless nature of Scripture enables it to speak with power in every time and in every culture.

Those who fail to recognize that Scripture is both timely and timeless run into a host of problems. For example, those who are intimidated by timely books such as Hebrews, Galatians, or Deuteronomy might avoid reading them because they seem meaningless today. At the other extreme, those who are convinced of the timeless nature of Scripture, but who fail to discern its timely element, may wax eloquent about the Melchizedekian priesthood to a sleeping congregation, or worse still, try to apply the holy wars of the Old Testament in a physical way to God’s enemies today.

The purpose of this section, therefore, is to help you discern what is timeless in the timely pages of the Bible—and what is not. For example, how do the holy wars of the Old Testament relate to the spiritual warfare of the New? If Paul’s primary concern is not circumcision (as he tells us in Gal. 5:6), what is he concerned about? If discussions about the Aaronic priesthood or Melchizedek seem irrelevant today, what is of abiding value in these passages? If people try to test the spirits today with a test designed for a specific first-century heresy, what other biblical test might be more appropriate?

Yet this section does not merely uncover that which is timeless in a passage but also helps you to see how it is uncovered. The authors of the commentaries seek to take what is implicit in the text and make it explicit, to take a process that normally is intuitive and explain it in a logical, orderly fashion. How do we know that circumcision is not Paul’s primary concern? What clues in the text or its context help us realize that Paul’s real concern is at a deeper level?

Of course, those passages in which the historical distance between us and the original readers is greatest require a longer treatment. Conversely, those passages in which the historical distance is smaller or seemingly nonexistent require less attention.

One final clarification. Because this section prepares the way for discussing the contemporary significance of the passage, there is not always a sharp distinction or a clear break between this section and the one that follows. Yet when both sections are read together, you should have a strong sense of moving from the world of the Bible to the world of today.

Contemporary Significance

THIS SECTION ALLOWS THE biblical message to speak with as much power today as it did when it was first written. How can you apply what you learned about Jerusalem, Ephesus, or Corinth to our present-day needs in Chicago, Los Angeles, or London? How can you take a message originally spoken in Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic and communicate it clearly in our own language? How can you take the eternal truths originally spoken in a different time and culture and apply them to the similar-yet-different needs of our culture?

In order to achieve these goals, this section gives you help in several key areas.

(1) It helps you identify contemporary situations, problems, or questions that are truly comparable to those faced by the original audience. Because contemporary situations are seldom identical to those faced by the original audience, you must seek situations that are analogous if your applications are to be relevant.

(2) This section explores a variety of contexts in which the passage might be applied today. You will look at personal applications, but you will also be encouraged to think beyond private concerns to the society and culture at large.

(3) This section will alert you to any problems or difficulties you might encounter in seeking to apply the passage. And if there are several legitimate ways to apply a passage (areas in which Christians disagree), the author will bring these to your attention and help you think through the issues involved.

In seeking to achieve these goals, the contributors to this series attempt to avoid two extremes. They avoid making such specific applications that the commentary might quickly become dated. They also avoid discussing the significance of the passage in such a general way that it fails to engage contemporary life and culture.

Above all, contributors to this series have made a diligent effort not to sound moralistic or preachy. The NIV Application Commentary Series does not seek to provide ready-made sermon materials but rather tools, ideas, and insights that will help you communicate God’s Word with power. If we help you to achieve that goal, then we have fulfilled the purpose for this series.

The Editors

General Editor’s Preface

SOME SCHOLARS CALL THE book of Deuteronomy The Gospel According to Moses. Others, instead of comparing Moses to a gospel writer, compare him to Paul, the great New Testament theoretician. Daniel Block, in this wonderfully written commentary on Deuteronomy, uses both these ascriptions and more to describe the incredible theological value of this Old Testament book. At one point he claims it is the most systematic presentation of theological truth in the entire Bible, rivaled perhaps only by Paul’s Romans.

Deuteronomy? you may be wondering. Isn’t it just an Old Testament book? How can it be gospel without Jesus? Doesn’t it predate Jesus by at least a millennium? Isn’t this kind of reliance on Old Testament law just what Paul warns us against?

Listen! If you have even an ounce of such nomo-phobia, start reading this commentary. You will find your prejudices quickly taking flight. As Professor Block shows us, what Moses did was gospel. It was good news to the Israelites who heard it on the Plains of Moab. And in the hands of this excellent biblical exegete, it becomes gospel for us today.

This may sound surprising to you, and it is true that there are surprises awaiting you when you study this book. First, you will be surprised at who Moses is. Second, you will probably be surprised with what Moses asks Israel to do in his speeches, not because of what he says, but with how much sense it makes to you as a non-Israelite some three thousand-plus years after the fact.

Moses can be summed up in this statement: Moses is more of a pastor than a lawgiver. Admittedly this goes against the grain of what we think we know about him. One of our most enduring images of Moses is his Olympian moment of anger, smashing two stone tablets of law on the rocks when he saw the golden calf. At first glance this seems to be all about law. God has given the law, Moses is bringing the law, the children of God are breaking the law. Can’t be much more law-filled than that, right? And wasn’t that really who Moses was?

But consider the occasion presented to us in Deuteronomy. The Israelites are poised to enter the Promised Land. It is a moment of hope. But hope, by its very nature, always has an element of uncertainty, and thus anxiety always accompanies hope. Things could go wrong. What if … ? Or what if … ? They need the reassurance of a pastor’s hand, not the remonstrances of an authority figure. Moses supplies that.

The second surprise is that what Moses tells the Israelites makes so much sense to us today. He tells them they need to be in a covenant relationship with God, that God wants them to be his people. Moses challenges the Israelites to respond by declaring that Yahweh alone is their God, and then by doing what God asks them to do.

Several years ago my wife and I taught abroad for a year and offered our home to a Jewish couple from Israel who were teaching in the United States. They asked if they could affix a mezuzah to our doorpost, a metal tube with the Shema in it, a passage from Deuteronomy 6 in Hebrew on a piece of paper (it also includes a similar passage from Deuteronomy 11). The Shema in just a few short verses captures so much of what Moses taught and counseled, beginning with the well-known phrase, Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is one. After the briefest of considerations, we couldn’t think of anything more appropriate to be on our doorpost. That is what we want to be constantly reminded of—the one Lord and our allegiance to him. And that is what we want to say to the world about who we are, and whose we are. The mezuzah is still on our doorpost.

Since then, the verses from Deuteronomy 6:4–9 have become one of my favorite biblical passages:

Hear, O Israel: The LORD our God, the LORD is one. You shall love the LORD your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength. And these words which I command you today shall be in your heart. You shall teach them diligently to your children, and shall talk of them when you sit in your house, when you walk by the way, when you lie down, and when you rise up. You shall bind them as a sign on your hand and they shall be a frontlet between your eyes. You shall write them on the doorposts of your house and on your gates.

One does not have to be an Old Testament Israelite to fully embrace the identity that this passage describes and to live it to the full. Jesus in his teaching ministry realized the spiritual goldmine of this passage and others like it that Deuteronomy represents. In his teaching he quotes more often from Deuteronomy than from any other biblical book. And this rich resource is as available to us—perhaps even more so—as it was to Jesus.

Terry C. Muck

Author’s Preface

THE ADVENTURE REPRESENTED BY this volume began more than a quarter century ago when I taught a Hebrew exegesis course on Deuteronomy for the first time, and it intensified after Zondervan graciously invited me to write this commentary for the NIVAC series. Whereas in an earlier phase of my life I had spent fifteen years with Ezekiel, for the past decade I have been engaged in a lively conversation with Moses. When I read Deuteronomy, I hear the voice of Moses. But sometimes I don’t understand what I am hearing, so I ask for clarification. Sometimes what I hear him saying sounds so different from what my ears have been trained to hear and my mind has been taught to accept. This leaves me puzzled and confused. Sometimes I hear the message clearly, but I don’t like what I hear, and I protest. He challenges my theology and my understanding of piety. Sometimes I hear him pleading with me to abandon my idols and to follow the Lord more fully, and I resist his plea. Then the voice of Moses exposes my self-centeredness and my hypocrisy. I do not love the Lord with all my heart and mind, with all my being, and with all my resources (cf. Deut. 6:4–5), and I certainly do not love my neighbor as myself. But thank you, Moses, for revealing to me the way of freedom and forgiveness and for reminding me of God’s relentless pursuit of his people and his lavish grace.

The present volume is a distillation of a much larger work. Unfortunately the limitations of the series has forced me to eliminate much of my exegetical homework and more detailed consideration of many subjects. We have tried to let the theological cream rise to the top and present that in a coherent and helpful form. As I see it, a commentary like this must serve three purposes: (1) It must help readers actually understand the text. (2) It must integrate the theological message of the text with teachings found in the rest of Scripture. (3) It must provide preliminary guidance for readers of Scripture—particularly pastors and teachers—on the relevance of the message of biblical texts for today. How successful we have been only readers and time will tell.

I agreed to write this commentary more than a decade ago, when my life was rather simple. However, shortly thereafter administrative duties (as president for the Institute for Biblical Research and as Associate Dean for Scripture and Interpretation at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky) complicated my life and ate up a lot of time and energy that might have gone into this project. This pilgrimage was put on virtual standstill for more than a year when we moved to Wheaton College in 2005. Finally, by the grace of God and the patience of the editors of this series, this stage of the project is finished. It is still far from perfect, and, while the Word of God is authoritative and reliable, our comments on the Scriptures are always in soft lead pencil, subject to correction, modification, and even erasure. We present this work to the church with the prayer that despite its imperfections, it will help to make the Scriptures, particularly the gospel according to Moses, come alive for a new generation of readers.

The people who have assisted me in the pilgrimage are too many to count. While Moses has been speaking to me, there have been many who have aided him by supporting me in my study of this remarkable book. Whether in classroom situations or in seminars and sermon series offered in churches—many have walked with me as I have walked with Moses, offering welcome insights into both the broader themes of Deuteronomy and the details of particular passages, and many have helped me refine the ways in which I communicate my discoveries. I must acknowledge in particular a series of graduate students who have lent me invaluable aid in research, in proofreading drafts, and in being sounding boards for some of my discoveries: Greg Mathias [deceased], Jason DeRouchie, Greg Smith, Kenneth Turner, Bryan Cribb, Rebekah Josberger, Nathan Elliott, Chris Ansberry, Jerry Hwang, Charlie Trimm, Jason Gile, Rahel Schafer, Matt Newkirk, Matthew Patton, and Daniel Owens. This work could never have been accomplished without their friendship and their assistance. I must also express my gratitude to Carmen Imes and my wife, Ellen, who assisted me in the tedious task of indexing this work.

However, I owe a special debt of gratitude to Chris Ansberry, who spent countless hours at the end of this process trying to reduce a 1,250 page manuscript to approximately 800 pages as required by the editors of this series without losing my voice or the spirit of the larger work. Having worked so closely with Chris for six years, he knows the pulse of my heart. This final stage was funded by monies that came with the Leland Ryken Award for Teaching Excellence graciously granted me in the fall of 2010.

I would be remiss if I did not also express my thanks to the institutions that invested in this project through their library resources and funding provided for attending professional conferences where my ideas could be presented and tested: Bethel Theological Seminary, Southern Seminary, Wheaton College, and the Tyndale Library in Cambridge, where I was generously hosted during two sabbaticals (2002, 2010). Special thanks to Danny Akin, the dean of Southern Seminary, who graciously granted me a sabbatical leave in 2001–2002, and to Jeff Greenman, Jill Baumgartner, and Stan Jones, who granted me a generous leave in 2010. I am also grateful for the invitation by Zondervan and the NIVAC editorial board to make this contribution to the series. I am especially appreciative of the support I have received from Katya Covrett along the way. I must also express my deep gratitude to Bud and Betty Knoedler, who have given so generously to underwrite my professorial chair. It is a special grace to know them not only as supporters of Wheaton College, but also as personal friends. Ellen and I are grateful for their daily prayers on our behalf.

I eagerly also acknowledge Ellen, the delight of my life, who has stood by me as a gracious friend and counselor for more than four decades. Without her love and wisdom, the work represented here would either never have been finished, or it would have taken a dramatically different turn. Ellen has walked with me on this pilgrimage, not only listening to my private expressions of frustration and joy throughout this process, and patiently hearing many of my sermons and lectures on this book, but also providing me with a tranquil and peaceful world in which to do my work. I am also thankful for my family, who has taught me so much about celebrating the grace of God in everyday experiences of life. This book is dedicated to my grandchildren with deep love and affection.

Ultimately, all praise for this and any other accomplishment must go to God, who has lavished his grace on us in Christ Jesus and in his Torah.

May the favor of the Lord our God rest upon us;

establish the work of our hands for us—

yes, establish the work of our hands. (Ps. 90:17)

Daniel I. Block

May 2011

Abbreviations

AB Anchor Bible

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Ed. David N. Freedman. 6 vols. New York, 1992.

ACEBT Amsterdamse Cahiers voor Exegese en bijbelse Theologie

AfO Archiv für Orientforschung

AJSL American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature

AnBib Analecta biblica

ANEP Ancient Near Eastern Texts in Pictures. Ed. J. Pritchard. Princeton, 1954

ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. 3rd ed. Ed. J. Pritchard. Princeton, 1969.

AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament

ARAB Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia. Ed. D. D. Luckenbill. 2 vols. Chicago, 1926–1927.

ARM Archives royales de Mari

AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies

BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

BBB Bonner biblische Beiträge

BBR Bulletin of Biblical Research

BECNT Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

BETL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium

BHQ Biblia Hebraica Quinta

BHRG Biblical Hebrew Reference Grammar. Ed. C. H. J. Van der Merwe. Sheffield, 1999.

BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia

Bib Biblica

BibOr Biblica et orientalia

BIS Biblical Interpretation Series

BJS Brown Judaic Studies

BN Biblische Notizen

BRev Bible Review

BSac Bibliotheca sacra

BST Bible Speaks Today

BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin

BWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament

BZ Biblische Zeitschrift

BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

CahRB Cahiers de la Revue biblique

CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. 1956.

CANE Civilizations of the Ancient Near East

CAT Cuneiform Alphabetic Texts from Ugarit, Ras Ibn Hani, and Other Places [=CTU]. Ed. M. Dietrich, O. Loretz, J. Sanmartin. Münster, 1995.

CBC Cambridge Bible Commentary

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CH Code of Hammurabi. Ed. M. T. Roth. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia. Atlanta, 1997.

chap(s). chapter(s)

ConBOT Coniectanea biblica: Old Testament Series

COS Context of Scripture. Ed. W. W. Hallo. Leiden, 1997–.

CurBR Currents in Biblical Research

DBAT Dielheimer Blätter zum Alten Testament

DCH Dictionary of Classical Hebrew. Ed. D. J. A. Clines. Sheffield, 1993–.

DDD Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Ed. K. van der Toorn et al. Leiden, 1995, rev. ed. 1998.

DDS Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School. By M. Weinfield. Winona Lake, 1992

DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert. Oxford University Press. 44 vols. 1955–.

DOTP Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch. Ed. T. D. Alexander and D. W. Baker. Downers Grove, 2003.

EGL Eastern Great Lakes

EncJud Encyclopaedia Judaica. Jerusalem, 1972.

ErIsr Eretz-Israel

ESV English Standard Version

ETL Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

ExAud Ex auditu

ExpTim Expository Times

FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament

FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literature des Alten und Neuen Testaments

HALOT Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Ed. L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm. 2 vols. Leiden, 1994–2000.

HAR Hebrew Annual Review

HAT Handbuch zum Alten Testament

HBS Herder biblische Studien

HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology

HDT Hittite Diplomatic Texts. Ed. G. Beckman. 2nd ed. Atlanta, 1999.

HKAT Handkommentar zum Alten Testament

HL Hittite Laws Ed. M. T. Roth. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia. Atlanta, 1997.

HS Hebrew Studies

HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs

HSS Harvard Semitic Studies

HTR Harvard Theological Review

HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual

IBD Illustrated Bible Dictionary

ICC International Critical Commentary

IDB Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible

IEJ Israel Exploration Journal

Int Interpretation

JANES Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society

JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society

JATS Journal of the Adventist Theological Society

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JBQ Jewish Bible Quarterly

JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology

JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JHS Journal of Hebrew Scriptures

JJS Journal of Jewish Studies

JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies

JNWSL Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages

JPA Jewish Publication Society

JQR Jewish Quarterly Review

JSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic and Roman Periods

JSNTSup Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series

JSS Journal of Semitic Studies

JTI Journal of Theological Interpretation

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

KTU Die Keilalphabetischen Texte au Ugarit [=CTU]

LCC Library of Christian Classics

LE Laws of Eshnunna. Ed. M. T. Roth. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia. Atlanta, 1997.

LH Laws of Hammurabi. Ed. M. T. Roth. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia. Atlanta, 1997.

LL Laws of Lipit-Ishtar. Ed. M. T. Roth. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia. Atlanta, 1997.

LNTS Library of New Testament Studies

LX Laws of X (an unknown ruler). See M. T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia. Atlanta, 1997.

LXX Septuagint

m. Mishnah

MAL Middle Assyrian Laws. Ed. M. T. Roth. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia. Atlanta, 1997.

MT Masoretic Text

MWBS Midwest Biblical Societies

NAC New American Commentary

NCB New Century Bible

NIB New Interpreter’s Bible

NIBC New International Biblical Commentary

NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament

NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament

NIDB New International Dictionary of the Bible. Ed. J. D. Douglas and Merrill C. Tenney. Grand Rapids, 1987.

NIDOTTE New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis. Ed. W. VanGemeren. 5 vols. Grand Rapids, 1997.

NIV New International Version

NIVAC NIV Application Commentary

NJPS New Jewish Publication Society

NKJV New King James Version

NLT New Living Translation

NovT Novum Testamentum

NovTSup Novum Testamentum Supplements

NRSV New Revised Standard Version

NTS New Testament Studies

OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis

OBT Overtures to Biblical Theology

OTL Old Testament Library

OTS Old Testament Studies

OtSt Oudtestamentische Studiën

PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly

RB Revue biblique

RevExp Review and Expositor

RevQ Revue de Qumran

RIME The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia: Early Periods

SAA State Archives of Assyria

SANE Sources from the Ancient Near East

SBA Studies in Biblical Archaeology

SBJT Southern Baptist Journal of Theology

SBLABS Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and Biblical Studies

SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series

SBLMS Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series

SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers

SBLWAW Society of Biblical Literature Writings from the Ancient World

SBT Studies in Biblical Theology

SHANE Studies in the History of the Ancient Near East

SSI Textbook of Syrian Semitic Inscriptions. Ed. J. C. L. Gibson. 3 vols. Oxford, 1971–82.

STDJ Studies in the Texts of the Desert of Judea

StEv Studia evangelica

TA Tel Aviv

TCS Texts from Cuneiform Sources

TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Ed. G. J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren. 15 vols. Grand Rapids, 1974–.

TJ Trinity Journal

TLOT Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. Ed. E. Jenni and C. Westermann. 3 vols. Peabody, MA, 1997.

TWOT A Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Ed. R. L. Harris, G. L. Archer, and B. K. Waltke. 2 vols. Chicago, 1980.

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

UF Ugarit-Forschungen

UNP Ugaritic Narrative Poetry. S. B. Parker. SBLWAW 9. Atlanta, 1997.

v(v). verse(s)

VF Verkündigung und Forschung

VT Vetus Testamentum

VTE Vassal Treaties of Esardhaddon. Ed. M. T. Roth. Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia. Atlanta, 1997.

VTSup Vetus Testamentum Supplements

WBC Word Biblical Commentary

WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament

WTJ Westminster Journal of Theology

ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

Introduction to Deuteronomy

THE THEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF Deuteronomy can scarcely be overestimated. Inasmuch as this book offers the most systematic presentation of theological truth in the entire Old Testament, we may compare its place to that of Romans in the New Testament. Moreover, since Deuteronomy reviews so much of Israel’s historical experience of God’s grace as recounted in Genesis through Numbers, a comparison with the gospel of John may be even more appropriate. Just as John wrote his gospel after several decades of reflection on the death and resurrection of Jesus, so Moses preached the sermons in Deuteronomy after almost four decades of reflection on the significance of the Exodus and God’s covenant with Israel. Thus, like the gospel of John, the book of Deuteronomy functions as a theological manifesto, calling on Israel to respond to God’s grace with unreserved loyalty and love.

History of Interpretation

DEUTERONOMY IS THE FIFTH and final book of what Jewish tradition knows as the Torah, and Christians refer to as the Pentateuch. In popular Hebrew tradition the book is sēfer debārîm (book of words), which is an adaptation of the official Hebrew name ʾēlleh haddebārîm (These are the words), taken from the first two words of the book. In the third to second centuries BC the translators of the LXX set the course for the history of interpretation of Deuteronomy when, instead of translating the Hebrew title to biblion tôn logôn (the book of words) or more simply logoi (words"), they designated the book deuteronomium (second law).¹ This Greek heading probably became determinative because the book does indeed reiterate many of the laws found in Exodus through Numbers, and in chapter 5 it cites the Decalogue of Exodus 20 almost verbatim. But the name Deuteronomy overlooks the true nature of the book: It presents itself as a series of sermons that review events described in the narratives of earlier books and challenges the people to faithful living in the future. Where laws are dealt with (e.g., the central sanctuary regulation in Deut. 12), the presentation is often in the form of exposition rather than a recital of the laws themselves.

Prior to the rise of the source-critical method, both Jewish and Christian readers assumed Mosaic authorship of the book, a fact reflected in the common designation of the Pentateuchal books outside the English world as the Five Books of Moses. During the time in which Jesus ministered and spoke, some looked on him as the eschatological prophet like Moses whom Yahweh promised to raise up (Deut. 18:15; cf. Matt. 11:9; John 1:21, 25; 6:14; 7:40). While Jesus himself rejected this interpretation (John 1:21), judging by the number of quotations from Deuteronomy, this was Jesus’ favorite book. This impression is reinforced by his distillation of the entire law into the simple command to love Yahweh with one’s whole being and to love one’s neighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). This form of the command is thoroughly deuteronomic. While appeals for love for one’s neighbor and the stranger occur earlier in the Pentateuch (Lev. 19:18, 34), the command to love God occurs only in Deuteronomy (Deut. 6:5; 11:1, 13; 13:3[4]; 30:6).

Paul repeatedly cites texts from Deuteronomy to buttress his positions (Rom. 10:19; 11:8; 12:19; 1 Cor. 5:13; 9:9; Eph. 6:2–3; etc.). However, it is clear that Paul interpreted not only the entire history of God’s revelation, but also Deuteronomy in particular in the light of Christ and the cross (Rom. 10:6–8; 1 Cor. 8:6; Gal. 3:13). In so doing, Paul functioned as a second Moses, not only in providing a profoundly theological interpretation of God’s saving actions in Christ, but also in reminding his readers that salvation comes by grace alone. In Romans and Galatians Paul’s argumentation is addressed to those who would pervert the law (a narrow legalistic interpretation of Hebrew Torah) into a means of salvation, rather than treating it as a response to salvation as Moses perceived it. In his own disposition toward the law Paul was in perfect step with Moses: obedience to the law was not a means for gaining salvation but a willing and grateful response to salvation already received. There is nothing revolutionary in Paul’s definition of a true Jew as one who receives the praise of God because he is circumcised in the heart (Rom. 2:28–29; cf. Deut. 10:16–21; 30:6), nor in his praise of the law as holy, righteous, and good (Rom. 7:12; cf. Deut. 6:20–25), nor in his distillation of the whole law into the law of love (Rom. 13:8–10; cf. Deut. 10:12–21).

The early church fathers tended to follow Paul’s lead in interpreting Deuteronomy christologically, but in their application of the laws they often resorted to spiritualizing the details. For example, by marshaling the Shema (Deut. 6:4–5) to defend the doctrine of the Trinity, they obscured the original contextual meaning of the statement.² Of the Reformers Luther tended to read Deuteronomy through the lenses of Paul’s rhetorical seemingly antinomian statements (Rom. 7:4–9; 2 Cor. 3:6; Gal. 3:10–25). His own debilitating experience of works-righteousness within the Roman Catholic Church contributed significantly to his view of a radical contrast between the law (which kills) and the gospel (which gives life). His emphasis on the dual function of the law (civic—to maintain external order on earth; theological—to convict people of sin and drive them to Christ)³ completely missed the point of Deuteronomy, which presents the law as a gift of grace to the redeemed to guide them in the way of righteousness and lead to life (cf. Deut. 4:6–8; 6:20–25). Like Luther, Calvin insisted that no one can be justified by keeping the law, but he also emphasized that through the gift of the law, Israel was instructed on how to express their gratitude for their redemption and bring glory and delight to God.⁴

These approaches tended to dominate the disposition of interpreters of Deuteronomy until the Enlightenment, when the attention of critical scholars shifted from the theological value of Deuteronomy to hypotheses concerning the origin of the book. By the second half of the nineteenth century the documentary approach to Pentateuchal studies was firmly entrenched, and Deuteronomy had been isolated as a source separate from J (Yahwist), E (Elohist), and P (Priestly). Critical scholars generally agree that on the one hand, Deuteronomy either provides the occasion or is the result of the Josianic reform, and on the other hand that the speeches in Deuteronomy are pseudepigraphic, being fictionally attributed to Moses to lend weight to the voice of the parties whose interests are represented in the book.⁵ Whether they attribute the bulk of Deuteronomy to country Levites writing shortly before 701 BC,⁶ prophetic circles of northern Israel,⁷ or sages in the Jerusalem court,⁸ many interpret the book as a sort of manifesto, written in support of Josiah’s efforts to centralize the religion of Israel in Jerusalem. Weinfeld views Deuteronomy not only as a remarkable literary achievement, but also as a profound monument to the theological revolution advocated by the Josianic circles. This revolution attempted to eliminate other shrines and to centralize all worship of Yahweh in Jerusalem, as well as to secularize, demythologize, and spiritualize the religion.⁹

These interpretations go back to Julius Wellhausen, who proposed that Deuteronomy 12–26 represents the original core of the book, which was written by a prophet (some suggest Jeremiah) ca. 622 BC (cf. 2 Kings 22–23) to promote the reform of Israel’s religious practices (2 Chron. 34–35) and centralize the cult in Jerusalem. Whereas previously all had recognized Deuteronomy as the last book of the Pentateuch, Martin Noth argued that the book serves as a theological prologue to the Deuteronomistic history (Joshua–Kings), whose purpose was to demonstrate that the demises of Israel and Judah in 722 BC and 586 BC respectively were the direct result of Israel’s worship of strange gods and her failure to obey Yahweh’s demands.¹⁰

More recently some have proposed that Deuteronomy was originally produced by a coalition of dissidents (scribes, priests, sages, and aristocrats). According to Richard D. Nelson, the book has its roots in a time of crisis (seventh century), when loyalty to Yahweh was being undermined by the veneration of other gods, the well-being of many was being jeopardized by exploitative royal policies, and the prophetic institution was out of control.¹¹ The inconsistencies and ambiguities in the Deuteronomic legislation reflect the varying interests of the dissident groups.¹²

While many scholars admit that some of the ideas in the book may derive from earlier times, in their minds the Moses we hear in Deuteronomy is a legendary figure and the speeches in the book are pseudepigraphic. Like many ancient writers, the author of the book expresses his ideology by putting programmatic speeches into the mouth of this figure, who towers above all others in Israelite history as the epitome of wisdom and spirituality.¹³

But this reconstruction of the origins and provenance of Deuteronomy is diametrically opposed to the internal evidence of the book. Nothing about the book of Deuteronomy or the speeches embedded therein points to a pseudepigraphic work. On the contrary, the image of Moses reflected in the addresses, particularly in the first speech, is hardly the stuff of idealized legend. Moses is keenly aware of his honorific role as the mediator of divine revelation (cf. 5:4–5) and the mouthpiece for God (1:42; 2:2, 31; 3:2; 6:1), but his transparently sour disposition toward the people, and even toward God because he cannot enter the land of Canaan, is anything but laudatory. The first speech in particular creates the impression of a tired and bitter old man, disillusioned with his people, frustrated with God, and discouraged with his task (1:37; 3:26; 4:21). This is not the normal stuff of pseudepigraphy and argues strongly for the integrity of the speeches as authentic records of Mosaic speeches.

Not all are willing to date Deuteronomy late. Some argue that the religious and political vision of the book does not fit the Josianic period as described in 2 Kings. On the contrary, according to McConville, Deuteronomy, or at least a form of it, is the document of a real political and religious constitution of Israel from the pre-monarchical period.¹⁴ As such it challenges prevailing ancient Near Eastern royal-cultic ideology, replacing this with a prophetic vision of Yahweh in direct covenant relationship with his people and a people governed by Torah. Through the Torah the prophetic authority of Moses, the spokesperson for Yahweh, extends to the community. The Book of the Torah, deposited next to the ark and formally read before the assembly, provides a constant reminder of the will of the covenant Lord and a guide for expressing its loyalty to him.¹⁵

Taken at face value, Deuteronomy tells us more about its composition than any other book in the Old Testament. Inside the book we find many references to the written Torah (6:6–9; 11:18–21; 17:18–20; 27:1–8; 28:58–61; 29:14–29[13–28]; 30:8–11), which point to an early transcription of the Torah that Moses delivered in oral form. Deuteronomy 31:9–13 specifically declares that Moses wrote down this Torah and placed it in the custody of the priests who carried the ark of the covenant. We may infer that this applied to all the addresses recorded in the book: the first address (1:6–4:40), the second address (5:1b–26:19; 28:1–29:1[28:69]), and the third address (29:2[1]–30:20). Deuteronomy 31:22 also indicates that Moses wrote down the song that Yahweh dictated to him and Joshua that same day (32:1–43), and there is every reason to believe that he did the same with the fragments that now constitute the blessing of the tribes (33:2–29).

It seems likely that when Joshua and the Israelites crossed the Jordan River after Moses’ death, they had in their possession a written copy of all this material. The book identifies the individual addresses as Torah. Eventually, the scope of this term was expanded to include the added narrative sections (1:1–5; 27:1–10; 34:1–12; etc)—and finally, when the book of Deuteronomy was combined with the preceding books (Genesis–Numbers), to the Pentateuch as a whole.

The book of Deuteronomy presents itself as the record of a series of addresses delivered orally by Moses to his countrymen on the verge of crossing over into the Promised Land, and immediately committed to writing (31:9).¹⁶ However, in accordance with ancient Near Eastern literary conventions, strictly speaking the book as we have it is anonymous. We may speculate when the individual speeches of Moses were combined, arranged, and linked with their present narrative stitching. Within the book we observe a series of features that suggest Moses was not responsible for the final form of the book: (1) references to Moses in third person in the narrative stitching at the boundaries of the respective speeches,¹⁷ and in the formulaic introductions to the blessing fragments in chapter 33;¹⁸ (2) details that reflect a context later than the speeches themselves (post-Mosaica);¹⁹ (3) the language of Deuteronomy.²⁰ Nevertheless, several features within the book point to much earlier context: (1) archaic or at least archaizing features in the language,²¹ which occur both in Moses’ speeches (as might be expected: 4:6; 10:10; 20:20; 24:4; 30:11, 12, 13) and in the narrative comments (3:11); (2) the literary style of Deuteronomy;²² (3) the names used to identify the original inhabitants of the Transjordanian territories of Moab and Ammon in Moses’ first address;²³ (4) the anecdotal reference to Og’s huge bed of iron in 3:11, which invites ancient readers to check the narrator’s veracity and confirm the magnitude of Israel’s victory; and (5) the structure of Deuteronomy, which bears a closer resemblance to late second millennium Hittite treaties than to neo-Assyrian structures.²⁴

Taking these features into account, it seems that although the speeches of Deuteronomy derive from Moses himself, the book as we have it was produced later. A reasonable terminus a quo (earliest possible date) would be during the tenure of Joshua after the Israelites had crossed the Jordan; a terminus ad quem (latest possible date) would be the ninth century, prior to the ministries of Elijah and Elisha, after which the style of prophetic preaching seems to have changed dramatically. The Torah referred to in texts like Joshua 1:8; 8:31–34; and 23:6 may have consisted minimally of the written versions of Moses’ second address (including the covenant curses and the Song of Yahweh), and maximally of Moses’ three major speeches and the songs now preserved in Deuteronomy. However, it is reasonable to suppose that by David’s time Deuteronomy more or less as we have it existed as the last scroll of the Pentateuch.

While critical scholars tend to assume that the Pentateuch arose in response to the crisis of the exile,²⁵ it remains equally possible that Israel’s canonical Scriptures were produced in the context of peace and heightened religious fervor. In an earlier time, God’s self-revelation and his entry into covenant relation with Israel at Sinai represented a climactic spiritual experience whose significance is documented in writing in the Decalogue and the statutes, ordinances, and laws preserved in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. One can imagine that David’s transfer of the ark to Jerusalem, the choice of Zion as the permanent residence of Yahweh, the receipt of the blueprint for the temple, the organization of the cult personnel, and the gathering of the materials for the construction of the temple sparked a new enthusiasm for the worship of Yahweh throughout the land (1 Chron. 22–29).

One may also imagine that David’s religious reforms called for a canonical Scripture to be used in worship and to serve as a guide for daily living as Israel looked forward to a new social and religious order under monarchic rule. David’s organization of the temple worship provides a logical context for the production of a canonical Scripture.²⁶ Exercising their role as gatekeepers of Israel’s theological ideas,²⁷ the priests and Levites would use these Scriptures in worship and in instructing the citizenry in the life of covenantal fidelity. The conjunction of this energized religious climate with the peace and security that David had won for the nation set the stage for the high point of Israel’s cultural achievements, which could reasonably have included the literary masterpiece we know as the Pentateuch as a whole and the book of Deuteronomy in particular.

Whether Deuteronomy, more or less as we have it, was produced by Samuel or under the auspices of David, this was probably the document according to which David charged Solomon to rule in 1 Kings 2:2–4. Unfortunately, as already anticipated by Moses, the periods when Israel as a whole and her kings in particular would live by the Torah were few and far between. During the reign of Manasseh in the seventh century, the book was suppressed altogether, and thoroughly pagan forms replaced its injunctions (2 Kings 21; 2 Chron. 33), which accounts for the response of Josiah when he heard the Torah read by Shaphan (2 Kings 22). The narrative suggests that the Torah had long been recognized as canonical; it was not some recent literary composition.

Later expressions like Book of Moses and Torah of Moses do not demand that Moses’ own hand produced the book in its final form. We do not doubt the historicity of Moses, nor the authenticity of his speeches, nor the fundamentally Mosaic authority behind the entire Pentateuch, any more than we question the authenticity of the speeches of Jesus in the Gospels. The editor of Moses’ final speeches and the biographer who preserved for us the account of Moses’ final days was himself a prophet in the Mosaic tradition. The book he produced is the Torah, which the priests were to teach and model,²⁸ which psalmists praised,²⁹ to which the prophets appealed,³⁰ and by which faithful kings ruled³¹ and righteous citizens lived (Ps. 1). In short, the book of Deuteronomy provides the theological base for virtually the entire Old (and New) Testament and the paradigm for much of its literary style.

Deuteronomy and the Canon

THE WRITTEN COPIES OF Moses’ last addresses to Israel were to be recognized as authoritative and canonical from the beginning. Not only did Moses prohibit adding to or deleting from his words (4:2; 12:32), but he also commanded the Levites to place the written copy of the Torah beside the ark of the covenant (31:9–13). That this written Torah was placed beside the ark rather than in it does not suggest a lesser authority than the Decalogue inside the ark but a different significance and use. Whereas the tablets with the Decalogue symbolized the covenant (4:13; 10:1–4) and were placed in the ark as a reminder to God of his covenant with Israel, the Torah was Moses’ inspired commentary on the covenant for the people (1:3).

The theological stamp of Deuteronomy is evident throughout the Old Testament and into the New Testament. If in Deuteronomy the term Torah applies expressly to the speeches of Moses, eventually it was applied to the entire Pentateuch, for which Deuteronomy represents the conclusion. The stamp of Deuteronomy on the so-called Deuteronomistic History (Joshua–Kings) is evident not only in the style of these books,³² but especially in its theology.³³ Specifically Solomon’s emphasis on the temple as a place for the name of Yahweh to dwell in 1 Kings 8 harks back to Deuteronomy 12 et passim. More generally, when the nation of Israel was destroyed and the Davidic monarchy dismantled, it was because they failed in their covenant relationship with Yahweh as outlined in Deuteronomy.

The influence of Deuteronomy is less obvious on Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah, but in the Latter Prophets one hears echoes of Moses’ orations throughout. Particularly in Hosea and Jeremiah, the links are so direct that scholars often debate which came first, Deuteronomy or the prophet. Prophetic pronouncements of judgment and restoration appear often to be based on the covenant curses of Deuteronomy 28 and promises of renewal in chapter 30. Indeed, the canonical collection of prophets as a whole and the book of Malachi specifically end with a call to return to the law of my servant Moses (Mal. 4:4–6[Heb. 3:22–24]), which, while having its base in the revelation at Sinai, refers fundamentally to Moses’ exposition of that law. In the Psalms Deuteronomic influence is most evident in the so-called Torah Psalms (1; 19; 119), which highlight the life-giving purpose of the law, but also in the wisdom psalms, with their emphasis on the fear of Yahweh (111:10; cf. 34:8–12[9–13]). The Psalms are so rooted in Deuteronomy that unless Christians accept this book as authoritative, they have no right to find inspiration in the Psalms.³⁴

New Testament texts like Luke 24:44 suggest that by the time of Christ, the expression Law of Moses served as the standard designation of the first part of the Jewish canon (alongside the Prophets and the Psalms). As noted earlier, the Pentateuchal location of Deuteronomy, which provides theological exposition of the events narrated in the previous books, may have influenced the canonical location of John, the most overtly theological of the Gospels. While many Christian interpreters see in Jesus a second Moses, this actually reflects a low Christology, for the New Testament presents Jesus as Yahweh incarnate. If there is a second Moses in the New Testament, that person is Paul. Like Moses, this apostle of liberty was specially called not only to lead the community of faith in the mission to which God had called it, but especially to draw out the theological and soteriological significance of God’s saving actions and to instruct God’s people in the life of covenant faith. In so doing Paul responded sharply to those who insisted that adherence to the law of Moses was a prerequisite to salvation, and he called his hearers to salvation by faith in the redeeming work of Christ. Like the book of Deuteronomy, Paul’s letters (such as Romans) often divide into two parts, the first being devoted to theological exposition (e.g., Rom. 1–11; cf. Deut. 1–11), and the second to drawing out the practical and communal implications of the theology (e.g., Rom. 12:16; cf. Deut. 12–26).

Hearing the Message of Deuteronomy

BECAUSE OF A PERVASIVE if latent Marcionism and adherence to theological systems that are fundamentally dismissive of the Old Testament in general and the book of Deuteronomy in particular, its message has been largely lost to the church. This is a tragedy because few books in the Old or New Testament proclaim such a relevant word of grace and gospel to the church today. But how can readers today rediscover the message of the book? The following hermeneutical steps should help.

(1) It is important to hear the word of Deuteronomy. At significant junctures Moses appeals to his people to hear the word he is proclaiming (5:1; 6:3–4; 9:1; 20:3). In 31:9–13 he charges the Levitical priests to read the Torah that he has just transcribed (i.e., his speeches) before the people every seven years at the Feast of Booths. This statement highlights the critical connection between hearing the Torah in the future and the life of God’s people. This link may be represented schematically as follows:

Reading → Hearing → Learning → Fear → Obedience → Life

A similar relationship between reading/hearing the words of this Torah and one’s future well-being is expressed in 17:19, where Moses charges future kings to read the Torah for themselves so they may embody the covenant fidelity he has espoused in his addresses to the people.

(2) To hear the message of Deuteronomy we must recognize its genre and form. At one level, Deuteronomy represents the final major segment of the biography of Moses that began in the first chapter of Exodus.³⁵ Accordingly, Deuteronomy may be interpreted as narrative with a series of lengthy embedded speeches. At another level, the manner in which the first two speeches have been arranged is strikingly reminiscent of ancient Near Eastern treaty forms, especially second millennium Hittite suzerainty treaties. Recognition of the fundamentally covenantal character of Deuteronomy has significant implications for the message we hear in the book. Yahweh is the divine suzerain, who graciously chose the patriarchs and their descendants as his covenant partner (4:37; 7:6–8), and he demonstrated his covenant commitment (,âhab, love) by rescuing them from Egypt (4:32–40), entering into an eternal covenant relationship with them at Sinai (4:9–31), revealing to them his will (4:1–8), and providentially caring for them in the desert (1:9–3:29), and he is now about to deliver the Promised Land into their hands (1:6–8; 7:1–26).

As a true prophet of Yahweh, Moses challenges the Israelites to respond by declaring that Yahweh alone is their God (6:4) and by demonstrating unwavering loyalty and total love for him through acts of obedience to him (6:5–19; 10:12–11:1; etc.). Although Moses realistically anticipates Israel’s future rebellion against her suzerain, leading ultimately to her banishment from the land promised on oath to Abraham, Yahweh’s compassion toward his people and the irrevocable nature of his covenant mean that exile from the land and dispersion among the nations cannot be the last word; Yahweh will bring them back to himself and the land (4:26–31; 30:1–10; 32:26–43). Moses perceives the covenant being renewed with Yahweh as an extension of the covenant made with Israel at Sinai (29:1[28:69]), and ultimately this is an extension of the covenant made with their ancestors (29:10–13[9–12]).

(3) At a third level the book of Deuteronomy presents itself as a series of addresses by Moses to Israel immediately prior to their entrance into the land of Canaan and prior to his own decease. The narrative preamble to the book (1:1–5) should be determinative for how we hear the message of the