Introduction to Language Studies

By SYED KHURAM SHAHZAD and WAHEED SHAHZAD

"Introduction to Language Studies" offers an enlightening journey through the history and evolution of human language. This book begins by delving into the origin of language, exploring various theories and perspectives on how language first emerged among humans. It then navigates through the development of language over time, examining key changes and milestones.

A significant portion of the book is dedicated to the intriguing topic of animal communication and the distinct lack of complex language in the animal kingdom, juxtaposing it with human linguistic capabilities. This leads to a discussion on the controversies and debates surrounding language evolution and cognition.

The book also provides an extensive overview of language families, tracing the roots and connections between different languages across the globe. It then takes readers on a historical journey, starting from the 18th century, to examine the evolution of linguistic thought and theory, laying the groundwork for modern linguistics.

In its exploration of 19th century historical linguistics, the book highlights significant advancements and shifts in understanding language structure and evolution. Finally, it culminates in a section on modern linguistics, offering insights into contemporary theories and methodologies that shape current linguistic research. This book is an essential resource for anyone interested in the history, development, and current state of language studies.

• Language: English
• Publisher: SYED KHURAM SHAHZAD
• Release date: Jan 1, 2024
• ISBN: 9798224324040

SYED KHURAM SHAHZAD

Syed Khuram Shahzad, the author of the book, is a distinguished educationist, language teacher, and PhD scholar specializing in English linguistics. He is renowned in his field, with over 25 research papers in English linguistics to his credit. His extensive work and contributions have significantly enriched the academic landscape of linguistics, reflecting his deep expertise and commitment to the discipline. Shahzad's scholarly pursuits and achievements make him a respected voice in the study of English linguistics.

Book preview

CHAPTER 1

Language Origin

1.1 Introduction

Studying language origin is a fundamental aspect of Introduction to Language Studies. The study of human language involves investigating its origins, development, and evolution. The field of language origin aims to comprehend the emergence, spread, and diversification of languages and the various factors that have shaped their development throughout history. It incorporates knowledge from diverse fields such as linguistics, anthropology, archaeology, and evolutionary biology.

In the course Introduction to Language Studies, students usually explore various theories and approaches concerning the origin of language. One example is the exploration of the debate between the nativist perspective, which argues that language is innate to humans, and the culturalist perspective, which suggests that language is primarily a cultural product.

Students also delve into the role of social and cultural factors in the origin of language. This includes examining how factors like the environment, migration, contact between different groups, and technological advancements have influenced the development of languages. Researchers may study the origins and diffusion of particular language families, such as Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, or Austronesian. Additionally, they may explore the evolution of writing systems.

The course Introduction to Language Studies familiarizes students with language change and evolution. Students learn about various processes that have shaped languages throughout history, including phonetic change, grammaticalization, and lexical borrowing.

Comprehending the complexity and diversity of languages worldwide is crucial; to achieve this, understanding the origin of language is essential. Studying language offers valuable insights into the historical and cultural aspects of human societies and the cognitive processes that underlie them. In addition, it assists students in critically analyzing language-related matters, such as the extinction and endangerment of languages, as well as efforts to revitalize languages.

The notion that language is bestowed as a heavenly attribute in several religious and spiritual doctrines. It reflects that language develops in a transcendent entity or deity. This particular approach often emphasizes the inherent sanctity of language and its inherent link to the divine. Throughout history, several religious and cultural traditions have ascribed the genesis of language to a supernatural origin, and this conviction persists in influencing our contemporary understanding of language.

1.2 Development in Language

Some African woods had ape-like residents eight million years ago, including the ancestors of chimpanzees and humans. These creatures resembled modern gorillas, living in trees, walking on all four limbs, and communicating with a limited vocal system of 20-30 calls, like chimpanzees. What about our ancestors' looks and conduct two million years ago? At that time, they were distinct from chimpanzee predecessors but not yet homo sapiens. What language and lifestyle did these beings have? These latest species are more challenging to visualise. They likely had a more advanced vocal communication system than their relatives six million years ago, making them more like humans. How much more sophisticated? What elements of current human language does this communication system have, and what does it lack?

These intermediary ancestors are creepy and intriguing. The intrigue with these animals is seen in many science fiction books and reports of their existence in isolated Himalayan valleys. Many nonlinguists believe that studying the linguistic capacities of our intermediate ancestors is a top priority in linguistics to understand the origins and development of human language. However, it is not. Language evolution research is gaining attention after a century of neglect. This section will discuss the reasons for neglect, followed by sections 2-5 on the evidence presented by anthropologists, geneticists, primatologists, and neurobiologists who have been more adventurous than linguists in this area for decades.

In section 6, it will be examined the contributions certain linguists are presently making.

Many faiths explain language's genesis. The Judeo-Christian legend states that God granted Adam sovereignty over animals in the Garden of Eden, and his first act was naming them. The Tower of Babel narrative explains the rise of several languages due to human hubris. The origin of speech was not a mystery as long as this view was widely accepted. The search for secular explanations for natural events led to the search for an earthly basis for language origins.

Although language predates recorded history, eighteenth-century thinkers like Rousseau, Condillac, and Herder believed that applying one's mind to the situation of languageless humans could lead to valuable conclusions about its origin. The lack of unanimity among these findings in the nineteenth century made them look weak and speculative compared to the compelling results of historical and comparative linguistics. Upon its founding in 1866, the Linguistic Society of Paris emphasized its scientific status by excluding studies on language origins in its bylaws. Linguists generally favor the restriction, believing that exploring the origin of language is too speculative and meaningless.

Since the 1960s, Noam Chomsky's ideas have dominated grammar theory, focusing on the innate biological endowment that allows humans to learn language quickly and efficiently in the first year of life.

Looking at language as an evolutionary process, it is logical to ask how it evolved in humans and whether it is present in other primates.

Chomsky has criticised language evolution, arguing that it may be a physical or chemical process rather than a biological one (1988: 167, 1991: 50). Despite attempting to explain language characteristics through an innate linguistic endowment (Universal Grammar), Chomskyan linguists often avoid exploring how and why these characteristics have developed. Exceptions exist (e.g., Newmeyer 1991, Pinker and Bloom 1990, Pinker 1994). However, Chomsky's impact causes linguists to overcome their reluctance to explore this topic steadily.

1.2.1 Christianity

John 1:1 (New Testament):

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.

This verse is from the opening of the Gospel of John and is a profound theological statement. It is often interpreted to emphasize the divine nature of Jesus Christ, referring to him as the Word that was present from the beginning and was with God. It signifies the role of Jesus in creation and as a divine revelation.

Genesis 2:19 (Old Testament):

And out of the ground, the Lord God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air, and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature that was the name thereof.

This verse is from the creation narrative in Genesis, describing the formation of animals and birds by God and the subsequent task given to Adam to name them. This act of naming is seen as a demonstration of Adam's authority and understanding, symbolizing his role as a caretaker of creation.

The connection between these passages lies in the significance attributed to words and naming. In John 1:1, the Word is associated with divine creation, and in Genesis 2:19, Adam's act of naming the creatures reflects a form of authority and understanding granted to humanity by God. Both passages highlight the role of language and naming in expressing divine purpose and human responsibility in the context of creation.

Christianity is a monotheistic religion that originated in the 1st century CE and is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ.

Within the context of the Christian faith, the Book of Genesis elucidates the divine being as the progenitor of the cosmos and all animate entities, including the human species. Based on the biblical narrative, it is posited that God bestowed onto Adam the capacity to assign names to animals, an act that is often interpreted as endowing humans with the gift of language. The notion that language is a sacred endowment is founded upon the theological principle that people are created in the likeness of a divine being, and that language serves as a distinguishing characteristic that separates humans from other living beings. This viewpoint places significant emphasis on the sanctity of language and its function in facilitating human communication and self-expression.

1.2.2 Islam

In Islam, the Quran teaches that Allah (God) bestowed knowledge, including the names of things, upon the first human, Adam. This concept is mentioned in several verses in the Quran, emphasizing the elevated status of Adam and humanity's role as stewards of the Earth.

One relevant verse is in Surah Al-Baqarah (2:31), where Allah says:

And He taught Adam the names - all of them. Then He showed them to the angels and said, 'Inform Me of the names of these, if you are truthful.'

In this context, Allah's act of teaching Adam the names demonstrate human knowledge and wisdom. The angels were asked to acknowledge the superiority of Adam by recognizing his ability to comprehend and articulate the terms of things, which reflects a level of understanding and intelligence.

This teaching of names is often interpreted as a symbolic representation of Adam's unique position among creation, endowed with knowledge and free will. It also emphasizes the responsibility of humans as stewards of the Earth, capable of understanding and naming the elements of the world around them.

The Qur'an is considered a divine revelation in Islamic theology. It is believed that the angel Gabriel transmitted the words of the Qur'an to the Prophet Muhammad. As the Qur'an is written in Arabic, the language is considered sacred and holy. Muslims view Arabic as a gift from God and the ability to understand and recite the Qur'an is highly revered. The belief in language as a divine gift emphasizes the importance of language in religious practice and the connection between God and the human experience.

1.2.3. Indigenous spirituality

Within several indigenous cultures, language is seen as a sacred instrument that establishes a spiritual connection between people, their ancestral lineage, and the surrounding natural environment. Language is widely acknowledged as a repository of the accumulated wisdom and information of a certain community, passed down from one generation to the next. The cultural and spiritual identities of these societies are closely intertwined with language. The maintenance and revival of language are seen as holy duties since it is thought that language encapsulates the spiritual soul of the society.

1.2.4. Judaism

Similar to Christianity, Judaism also finds its roots in the Hebrew Bible. In the Book of Genesis, God speaks the world into existence, demonstrating the power and significance of language. The Hebrew language, in which the Torah (the first five books of the Bible) is written, is considered sacred, and studying and reciting the scriptures is a way of connecting with the divine.

1.2.5. Hinduism

In the centre of the earth grew the wonderful ‘world tree,’ or ‘knowledge tree’. It was so tall that it reached almost to heaven. It said in its heart, ‘I shall hold my head in heaven and spread my branches over all the earth, and gather all men together under my shadow, and protect them, and prevent them from separating’. But Brahma, the creator-god, to punish the pride of the tree, cut off its branches and cast them down on the earth, when they sprang up as wata trees and made differences of belief and speech and customs to prevail on the earth, to disperse men upon its surface.

In Hinduism, language is considered a divine gift, expressed through the power of sacred sounds and mantras found in the Vedas. These ancient texts emphasize the spiritual significance of language, using rituals, hymns, and mantras to connect with the divine and uphold the cosmic order.

These examples highlight how the concept of language as a divine gift permeates various religious and spiritual systems. They illustrate the belief that language is more than a mere communication tool but a sacred and profound aspect of human existence. While all cultures or religions may not share this perspective, it provides a lens through which language is imbued with a higher significance and purpose. It underscores the power and uniqueness of language and encourages reverence for its use in a manner that honors its spiritual origins.

1.2.6. Americans

The Aztecs’ belief maintains that a great flood occurs and only a man, Coxcox, and a woman, Xochiquetzal, survive, having floated on a piece of bark. They find themselves on land and beget many children who are at first born unable to speak, but subsequently, upon the arrival of a d0ve, are endowed with language, although each one is given a different speech such that they cannot understand one another.

1.2.7. Africa

The Wa-Sania, a Bantu people of East African origin, have a tale that in the beginning, the peoples of the earth knew only one language. Still, during a severe famine, a madness struck the people, causing them to wander in all directions, jabbering strange words, and this is how different languages came about.

1.2.8. Australia

In remote times an old woman, named Wurruri, lived towards the east and generally walked with a large stick in her hand, to scatter the fires around which others were sleeping. Wurruri at length died. Greatly delighted at this circumstance, they sent messengers in all directions to give notice of her death; men, women and children came, not to lament, but to show their joy. The Raminjerar were the first who fell upon the corpse and began eating the flesh and immediately