Nanoformulations for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Risk Mitigation

By Anda Maria Baroi, Mirela Florina Calinescu, Georgiana Cîrstea and 31 more

Nanotechnology research and its application in agriculture has become a major focus in recent years. Nanoformulations offer the possibility to develop more efficient and less damaging agrochemicals in the environment. Smart delivery systems for nanosensors, molecules that can help to detect biotic or abiotic stresses before they can affect production, are being developed and applied. Nanotechnology also provides new techniques for genetic manipulation and plant breeding. The use of nanoformulations in agriculture is increasingly being used to enhance food values, reduce agricultural inputs, improve nutrient contents and create a longer shelf life for many products. Nanotechnology is also being applied to many aspects of food security, disease treatment, new tools for pathogen detection, effective delivery systems and packaging materials. All of these applications are supposed to assist in addressing the needs of a growing population, and help in mitigating the effects of climate change and other ecological disturbances.

This book highlights new applications of these nanoforms in the field of agricultural science, written by an international team of experts from across this broad discipline. It is essential reading for graduate students, researchers and practitioners involved in the application of nanotechnology in agriculture. The book:

· examines the role of nano-formulations in crop yield improvement whilst reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides;
· covers specially enabled delivery systems for the release of nanoformulations, field-sensing systems to monitor environmental stresses, and improvement of plant traits against environmental stress and diseases;
· is unambiguous, lucid, scientific and precise, with chapters supplemented by ample illustration and case studies to help clarify and summarize key points throughout.

• Language: English
• Publisher: CAB International
• Release date: Jul 31, 2023
• ISBN: 9781800623095

Book preview

Preface

For decades, the scientific world has not stopped researching, deepening, discovering and applying the results of the most profound research in the field of nanotechnologies. Since Richard Feynman launched the hypothesis of the use of particles with the smallest dimensions, hundreds of nanomaterials have been obtained and used for a wide variety of purposes and in the most diverse fields, and research continues for probably several hundred or perhaps thousands of such products.

Humans have always successfully applied biotechnologies and nanobiotechnologies to develop competitive products, for his own benefit, but also to improve the quality of life. Ensuring food security, global warming, diminishing natural resources, and a slowing down of agricultural productivity and profitability are some of the challenges that the world is facing today, and these threats have become increasingly fierce over time.

This book highlights the urgent needs to be fulfilled, such as increasing the quantity and quality of agricultural products, the safe control of pests and diseases, the development and implementation of efficient agricultural technologies, the development of sustainable agriculture, and the reduction of environmental risks, and the use of nanotechnologies as an exceptional source of feasible alternatives, some already discovered, others unidentified or insufficiently explored, that can be used to address these issues.

Nanotechnology is an emerging and expanding interdisciplinary research field with relevant results in the agri-tech revolution. Thus, the concentration of studies in a concise approach, in a book that presents the latest nanoformulations for sustainable agriculture and environmental risk mitigation, represented a real challenge. After hundreds of thousands of scientific articles and books have addressed these topics, after scientists and the general public have been well informed about nanotechnologies and nanomaterials, is there still interest in this topic?

The answer to this question is the main purpose of the book—to provide up-to-date information regarding the application of nanotechnologies in agriculture and to perpetuate interest in this topic until a sustainable agriculture and a green environment are achieved.

Introduction

In the past decade, nanotechnology in agriculture has advanced significantly. Agriculture can benefit from the development of more efficient and less contaminated agrochemicals (nanoformulations), smart delivery systems that can detect biotic or abiotic challenges before they impair productivity (nanosensors), and novel genetic modification techniques that allow greater efficiency during crop improvement. Nanoformulations are being used more frequently in agriculture to improve food quality, lower agricultural inputs, improve nutrient contents, and extend shelf life. To limit the usage of harmful chemicals, many nano-agricultural products are now being developed. Numerous areas of food security, disease treatment, novel methods for pathogen detection, efficient delivery systems, and packaging materials are all impacted by nanotechnology. This book explores the crucial and cutting-edge roles that nanotechnology can play in promoting sustainable agriculture. It contains the most recent information on nanoformulation and its implication in sustainable agricultural applications.

The chapters will highlight uses for these nanoforms that can significantly improve the current situation of a worldwide food shortage and address the negative consequences caused by the widespread use of chemical agrochemicals, which are claimed to promote biomagnification in an ecosystem. The use of nanoformulations and nano-enabled goods in reducing the danger associated with the existing usage of pesticides will also be covered.

1 Agricultural Nanotechnologies: Current Scenario and Future Implications for Global Food Security

Gheorghe Cristian Popescu¹* and Monica Popescu²*

¹Department of Applied Sciences and Environmental Engineering, University of Pitesti, Pitesti, Romania; ²Department of Natural Sciences, University of Pitesti, Pitesti, Romania

*Corresponding authors: [e-mail] and [e-mail]

© CAB International 2023. Nanoformulations for Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Risk Mitigation (eds Z. Khan and N.A. Șuțan)

DOI: 10.1079/9781800623095.0001

Abstract

Agriculture is one of the oldest production activities on the planet with a fundamental role in food security and the supply of raw materials for other industries, such as bioenergy, clothing, construction, pharmaceutical, and food. Sustainable agriculture is an increasingly promoted concept that ensures a beneficial correlation between economic, social, and environmental objectives in agricultural production. Nanotechnology is a relatively new cutting-edge field with implications in many fields of activity that could provide sustainable solutions for agricultural production systems. Nanotechnology is expected to improve the level of precision farming and food security. Nanoparticles prepared in various formulations, such as nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, and nanosensors, have potential benefits for biomass accumulation, crop yields and quality, and crop protection. There are still many challenges for the application of nanotechnology and the future implications for agriculture and food security. Nanotechnologies are alternative solutions for improving agricultural performance and form a part of new technologies.

Keywords: agroecological risk, crop yields and quality, food security, agri-nanotechnology, sustainability

1.1 General Considerations Regarding the Role of Nanotechnologies in the Development of Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable management of agroecosystems involves identification and exploitation of eco-friendly approaches for crop production. The most important technological tools that can ensure a sustainable approach to agricultural production are fertilization and plant protection against pests and diseases. New sustainable formulas for the production of fertilizers and plant-protection products can improve sustainability in agricultural production systems. The new concept of agricultural nanoproducts is safer and more effective than conventional methods (Muhammad et al., 2020).

In this context, nanotechnologies that use nanomaterials (NMs) prepared by various chemical, physical, or biological processes and techniques could solve some of the problems related to environmental sustainability issues in agricultural systems. NMs are eco-friendly products that can be used as nanofertilizers, nanosensors or nanopesticides in agriculture. These agricultural nanoproducts can change the conventional ways of agro-practices into more sustainable practices (Neme et al., 2021). Green synthesis of NMs using natural resources represents an innovative way to achieve new eco-friendly products for sustainable agriculture. The main route of producing green nanoparticles (NPs) from natural resources is by the use of enzymes, plant extracts, or bacteria (Al-Asfar et al., 2018). Agricultural waste could be an essential resource for manufacturing of NMs (AboDalam et al., 2022; Babu et al., 2022). New concepts for pesticides and fertilizers such as nanofertilizers, nanofungicides and nanoherbicides (Fig. 1.1) should generate new sustainable solutions for agricultural systems and food security.

An illustration of the three types of nano-agricultural products that are used. The products are nano-fertilizers, nano-fungicides, and nano-herbicides.

Fig. 1.1. Types of nano-agricultural products used in sustainable agriculture.

Agro-nanotech innovations could have a beneficial contribution toward achieving sustainable development goals in agriculture and food security (Sarkar et al., 2022). Nanotechnologies can fulfil a number of important objectives for agriculture, including sustainability and food security (Fig. 1.2).

1.2 Nanotechnology Applications in Agriculture for Crop Yields and Quality

Productivity of the agriculture sector and quality crops are essential to ensure food security and safety. Agriculture is the main component for ensuring food security. In many areas of the world, there has been an increase in the degradation of natural resources, but also reduced productivity of agricultural production systems. Access to natural resources and their quality directly and significantly influence crop yields and quality. The generation of alternative solutions and the use of new technologies are increasingly necessary to meet the requirements of modern and efficient agricultural systems. Nanotechnology is a modern scientific and practical approach that uses various types of NMs and nanoproducts for the agricultural sector, with promising results in terms of quantity and quality of plant yields (Mali et al., 2020). Nanotechnology, based on NPs prepared in various formulations such as nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, and nanoherbicides, is a new way to enhance agricultural crop production.

NPs have become one of the most important tools for agricultural purposes due to their physico-chemical and biological properties. The most common types of NPs used in many applications for agricultural or environmental purposes are made using cerium dioxide (CeO2NPs), copper (CuNPs), iron (FeNPs), titanium dioxide (TiO2NPs), zinc oxide (ZnONPs), silicon dioxide (SiO2NPs) or silver (AgNPs) (Fig. 1.3). Many types of NMs from different resources have been studied for agricultural purposes. Currently, a multitude of studies are focused on applications of nanotechnology in cereal crops (Wang et al., 2021), industrial crops, orchards (Abdelmigid et al., 2022), vegetables (Faizan et al., 2018), vineyards (Gohari et al., 2021), medicinal and aromatic plants (Elsayed et al., 2022), ornamental plant and cut flowers (Salachna et al., 2019; Tofighi Alikhani et al., 2021; Phong et al., 2022) (Fig. 1.4).

An illustration of the objectives of nanotechnology in agriculture. The objectives are sustainability, greater productivity, increased quality products, better resistance to biotic factors, and better resistance to abiotic factors.

Fig. 1.2. The main objectives of agricultural nanotechnology to increase the quality of products.

The productivity and quality of agricultural ecosystems is influenced by a number of factors, among which plant nutrition is essential. Fertilizers have an important role in agricultural technology by providing essential additional nutrients for plant growth and development requirements. Nanofertilizers, as a part of nanotechnology applications in agriculture, have shown great potential for increased crop production (Jakhar et al., 2022). These innovative products are eco-friendly NMs and can be used as a sustainable tool for soil management fertility (Milani et al., 2015). Many research and development studies are focused on improving the performance of agricultural technologies. Enhancement of various physiological, biochemical, and morphological parameters of plants using nanoformulations has been reported for many species (Table 1.1.).

AgNPs are the most used NPs obtained by physical, chemical, or biological processes. These NPs are used in many agricultural studies to improve technologies. Silver NMs can be used as plant growth stimulants in agriculture and horticulture sectors. AgNPs have been used in the production of potted lilies. Different concentrations of AgNPs (25–150 ppm) were applied to evaluate the growth and flowering features of Lilium plants. Lilium plants treated with AgNPs had higher plant biomass, accelerated flowering, formation of more flowers, and flowered for longer. A concentration of 100 ppm AgNPs stimulated the accumulation of assimilatory pigments, and treated plants had the highest amount of calcium and potassium in their leaves (Salachna et al., 2019). At a concentration of 100 mg l–1, use of AgNPs for tulip culture showed a positive effect was for flowers, biomass and bulbs (Byczyńska et al., 2019). AgNPs stimulated the flowering and fruiting parameters for in vitro propagation of Passiflora edulis L.; plants treated with AgNPs at 7 mg l–1 formed the most passion fruits and the fruits had the largest diameter (Phong et al., 2022). The effect of AgNPs (10–20 nm in size) on seed germination and yield of wheat were evaluated for various concentrations from 25 to 50 ppm. Any plants treated with AgNPs applied to soil showed improvements in dry weight, chlorophyll content and fresh weight, with all of these biochemical and morphological parameters having better values than those recorded for the control variant (Razzaq et al., 2016). The best response for AgNP application to wheat crop was observed at a concentration of 25 ppm. AgNPs can be used in chrysanthemum breeding (Tymoszuk and Kulus, 2020) or passion fruit breeding (Phong et al., 2022). ZnONPs was applied at various concentrations to evaluate the effect on the growth and photosynthetic capacity of tomato plants. ZnONPs treatment at 8 mg l–1 was found to be the most effective, and at this concentration, ZnONPs significantly improved the growth processes and photosynthetic efficiency of tomato plants (Faizan et al., 2018).

An illustration of the types of nanoparticles. They are CeO2 NPS, ZnONPs, TiO2NPs, AgNPs, Fe2O3 NPs, and SiO2NPs.

Fig. 1.3. The most commonly used nanoparticles (NPs) in agricultural production systems for crop performance.

Green synthesis of NPs from natural resources such as enzymes, plant extracts and bacteria is the new route to achieve new eco-friendly products for sustainable agricultural systems. In recent years, green processes using NPs have been documented to promote environmental sustainability in the agricultural sector. Foliar application of green-synthesized ZnONPs using plant extract from Eucalyptus lanceolatus enhanced the stem and leaf surface area in maize plants. Green-synthesized ZnONPs also improved the germination rate of maize seeds, and the fresh biomass and root system of the plants (Sharma et al., 2022). Other application of nanotechnology in agriculture used silicon-based NPs (SiNPs). SiNPs are a current silicon source that can be applied to improve the ability of plants to withstand biotic and abiotic stress conditions (Rajput et al., 2021). A concentration of 150 mg l–1 was found to be optimal for SiNPs for lemongrass plants in order to have good values of agronomic parameters (Mukarram et al., 2021). The growth process and antioxidant enzyme activities of coriander cultivated under different lead concentrations were improved by foliar application of SiNPs. Therefore, SiNPs could be an interesting approach in minimizing the level of lead toxicity in plants (Fatemi et al., 2021).

An illustration of the four sectors of agriculture where nanotechnology is applied.

Fig. 1.4. Applications of nanotechnologies in agriculture sectors.

Click to see the long description.

SiO2NPs have also been used in experiments with plants in hydroponic conditions. The effect of four concentrations of SiO2NPs on Gerbera jamesonii L. in hydroponic conditions was investigated and several biochemical and morphological parameters were measured. The treatment of 80 mg l−1 of SiO2NPs increased the number of flowers and longevity of gerbera flowers compared with the control experimental variant. The same treatment also generated the lowest bud abortion rate for gerbera plants (Tofighi Alikhani et al., 2021). Application of SiO2NPs resulted in higher development of Triticum aestivum L. in terms of shoot and root length or fresh and dry weight of plants (Akhtar and Ilyas, 2022). CeO2NPs were applied at different concentrations (100, 200, and 500 mg l–1) to evaluate the photosynthesis rate of peas (Pisum sativum L.). The lowest concentration induced a better photosynthesis rate and thus the vegetative growth processes were stimulated (Skiba et al., 2020). At the same time, CeO2NPs at a concentration of 500 mg l–1 promoted the biomass production of wheat plants, while higher concentration of NPs negatively affected the growth processes and plant photosynthesis (Abbas et al., 2020).

Table 1.1. Nanomaterials application in agriculture with implications for crop yields.

Under salt stress conditions, a positive effect of the presence of selenium NPs (SeNPs) and ZnONPs in the growing medium for two rapeseed cultivars was observed on germination rate. The role of SeNPs and ZnONPs in enhancing salinity tolerance in rapeseed plants was also highlighted (El-Badri et al., 2021). Foliar application of CeO2NPs improved rapeseed salt stress tolerance and increased chlorophyll content, leaf length and carbon assimilation rate. The contribution of NMs in plant physiology may thus become an important tool to enhance salinity toxicity tolerance. One experiment evaluated the effect of TiO2NPs, ZnONPs, Fe2O3NPs, and SiO2NPs on the morphological features and physiological processes of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), a flowering plant cultivated as a fibre and food crop, under salinity stress conditions (Singh et al., 2021). The presence of NPs had a positive impact on all treated plants and on growth processes, as well as improving the assimilation of carbon and nutrients. Application of NPs had a stimulating action of the antioxidant enzymatic system in L. usitatissimum.

Drought is an abiotic stress that negatively affects crop production. Different levels of NPs have been tested to evaluate the growth processes in wheat plants. Ikram et al. (2020) reported that SeNPs stimulate the growth processes of wheat plants under drought stress conditions. The positive response of the application of NPs is influenced by the applied dose. SeNPs applied at concentration of 30 mg l–1 seem to be optimal to enhance morphological parameters (plant height, root length, and leaf number) in wheat under normal and drought conditions.

Foliar application of CeO2NPs at 10 mg l-1 improved the salt tolerance of maize and the photosynthetic capacity in salt-stressed maize leaves. This was indicated by improved values for physiological, morphological, and biochemical traits of plants treated with NPs under salinity stress conditions (Liu et al., 2022). These results provide a beneficial alternative method for alleviating abiotic stress factors such as salt soil stress for crops. Gohari et al. (2021) explored the benefits of CeO2NPs at various concentrations (25, 50, and 100 mg l−1) in combating induced salt stress (25 and 75 mM NaCl) in grapevine cuttings by evaluating the effect of NPs and salinity on some biochemical, viticultural, and physiological attributes. The growth parameters of grapevine such as leaf number and plant height demonstrated higher values compared with the control. The findings of this study demonstrated that CeO2NPs can improve the growth and physiological parameters of grapevine under salinity stress conditions.

NPs can reduce oxidative stress and cadmium (Cd) accumulation in wheat. Different concentrations of ZnONPs (25–100 mg l−1) and iron oxide NPs (Fe2O3NPs; 5–20 mg l−1) have been tested in wheat plants under cadmium contamination. Plants treated with NPs registered a lower concentration of Cd in shoots, grains, and roots, and demonstrated enhanced plant biomass (Rizwan et al., 2019). Cobalt (Co) stress negatively influences the physiological processes of plants, and is an important contaminant in agricultural systems. ZnONPs enhanced the plant growth, biomass, photosynthetic activity, seed zinc contents and nutrient uptake under Co stress. The results showed that ZnONPs enhanced the plant antioxidant defense system in maize under Co stress and allowed crops to be cultivated in Co-contaminated areas (Salam et al., 2022). Fe2O3NPs stimulated photosynthetic capacity and plant growth of soybean (Glycine max L.) and alleviated arsenic toxicity (Bhat et al., 2022). Co, Cd, and arsenic negatively affect plant biomass accumulation and plant developmental processes and can generate substantial harvest losses. NPs can thus play an essential role in alleviating Co, Cd, and arsenic stress and other phytotoxicities in plants.

1.3 Nanotechnology Applications in Agriculture for Crop Protection

A crop protection management plan is an essential tool of modern agricultural technologies in order to ensure a good crop yield. Agricultural crops are usually attacked by insects and various pathogens. In performance agriculture, pest management relies heavily on pesticide application. Considering the new requirements related to environmental standards, the management of pests in agricultural crops must have a minimal impact on the environment and not affect the quality of the crops. Nanotechnology is developing innovative products based on nanopesticides to enhance crop resistance to pests and diseases (Rajwade et al., 2020; Tran et al., 2022). Nanopesticides can enhance crop protection and agriculture productivity, with low environmental impact (Scott-Fordsmand et al., 2022). The main innovative nanoformulations against phytopathogens are nano-insecticides, nanofungicides and nanoherbicides (Fig. 1.5). Numerous research studies indicate that products based on NMs will be essential instruments for agricultural systems to prevent and control crop pests and pathogens (Rajwade et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2022). The development of alternative plant-protection products such as nanopesticides represents a key for efficient plant-protection management (Table 1.2.).

Foliar application of nanofungicides based on Cu, Ag, and Zn NMs is an eco-friendly approach for traditional synthetic fungicides against a number of plant pathogens including: Verticillium dahliae, Alternaria alternata, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radices-lycopersici, Botrytis cinerea, Monilia fructicola, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Fusarium solani (Malandrakis et al., 2019). CoNPs and AgNPs did not show an antifungal effect for Phytophthora cactorum or Sparassis crispa, while both types showed good antifungal activity for Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium redolens, and Meripilus giganteus (Aleksandrowicz-Trzcińska et al., 2018). TiO2NPs and ZnONPs, as nano-insecticides, were tested to evaluate the insecticidal effect on Bactericera cockerelli under laboratory and greenhouse conditions in tomato. Both NP products showed good insecticidal activity (Gutiérrez-Ramírez et al., 2021). Green-synthesized ZnONPs were applied at various concentrations (100, 200, 300, 400, and 500 mg l−1) against Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid) and Spodoptera litura (tobacco cutworm) associated with tomato crops (Thakur et al., 2022). The findings showed that nanoformulations of ZnONPs at higher concentrations induced the best insecticidal efficacy.

An illustration of nano-formulations for plant protection. They are nano-herbicides, nano-insecticides, and nano-fungicides.

Fig. 1.5. Nanoformulations for crop protection: nanoproducts/nano-agrochemicals.

Green-synthesized AgNPs from the polysaccharide extract of the red alga Ceratocystis fimbriata Ellis & Halst. proved to have a good antibacterial action against infection by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae. The biosynthesized AgNPs proved to be an effective substrate for nanopesticide production (Roseline et al., 2021). Carbon 60 NPs (C60NPs), CuONPs, and TiO2NPs were selected to evaluate the antifungal efficiency against Rhizopus stolonifer infections (Pang et al., 2021). The best antipathogenic effect was observed for treatment with 50 mg CuONPs l–1, followed by TiO2NPs and C60NPs.

CuNPs showed an efficient antifungal activity against Phytophthora infestans isolated from the tomato field. The findings demonstrated that CuNP products can be more efficient against P. infestans than traditional pesticides (Giannousi et al., 2013). A field experiment using chitosan-based nanopesticides showed an efficient control management of plumeria rust caused by Coleosporium plumeria. ZnNPs have shown a strong potential to control phytopathogens (Zhou et al., 2022). Foliar application of ZnONPs at a concentration of 100 mM was good for controlling of Fusarium graminearum in wheat plant experiments (Savi et al., 2015). Green-synthesized ZnONPs using a leaf extract of Sida rhombifolia Linn. were evaluated against growth of Bacillus subtilis and showed antibacterial efficacy (Kavya et al., 2020). SiO2NPs were tested against two phytopathogens, Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) and cabbage beetles (Phyllotreta spp.). The results showed that NPs had an entomocidal effect on these pests and could be included for crop pest management (Shatalova et al., 2022).

Agricultural productivity is significantly reduced due to plant pests and pathogens. It is essential to fight against plant phytopathogens to achieve better yields and quality products. There is a continuous need to identify new and effective methods to prevent and combat diseases and pests in agricultural crops. The recent studies and field experiments described demonstrate that nano-agrochemicals can prevent and control plant diseases and will play an essential role in future plant-protection management.

Table 1.2. Applications of nanoformulations for plant protection.

An illustration of the three main challenges of agricultural nanotechnology.

Fig. 1.6. The main challenges of agricultural nanotechnology.

Click to see the long description.

1.4 Opportunities, Challenges and Future Implications of Nanotechnology Applications in Agriculture and Food Security

Nanotechnologies, based on particles at a nano-level scale, are a relatively recently researched and developed field. This fact generates a series of challenges, opportunities and future implications for the research and development sector. At the same time, nanotechnologies bring a series of challenges and implications for companies and agricultural producers. Nanotechnologies have many applications in the agricultural sector and form part of the new technologies available for agriculture. New technologies and innovations provide key solutions for environmental protection, efficient agriculture and food security (Popescu et al., 2022). The nanoindustry offers a series of products with an essential role in agricultural production systems, such as nanofertilizers, nanofungicides, and nanoherbicides.

The main challenges of nanotechnologies are presented in Fig. 1.6. The large-scale production of nanoproducts, the acceptance of new nanotechnological solutions by farmers and agricultural companies, the effectiveness of the products, the production costs, and an affordable purchase price are concerns and challenges of the nanoproducts industry with applications in agriculture. Agriculture requires large quantities of products for fertilization and protection against diseases and pests. Therefore, production of nano-agricultural products on a large scale is a key need to cover the agricultural systems requirements. Nanotechnology products bring a series of opportunities to the following fields of interest for agriculture: the production sector, the waste sector, the environmental sector, and green technology (Fig. 1.7).

The main future implications of agricultural nanotechnologies will be improvements and beneficial changes in regulatory systems in agriculture, agricultural policies and the performance of agricultural systems (Fig. 1.8). Agricultural inputs at the nanoscale will bring new approaches and implications for agricultural technologies.

An illustration of the opportunities of agricultural nanotechnology in three different sectors.

Fig. 1.7. The main opportunities for agricultural nanotechnology.

Click to see the long description.

Future implications of nanotechnologies suppose greater sustainability and green solutions for agroecosystems but also implications for agricultural technologies, regulatory systems, and agricultural policies (Fig. 1.8).

Nanotechnologies can provide viable instruments for agricultural issues to enhance agricultural production and food security. This new approach could resolve a number of environmental issues, aid in plant protection and crop improvement, and enhance productivity. Nanotechnologies are also involved in preventing soil degradation and in circular economies by agricultural waste valorization. Agricultural waste could be an essential resource for the production of NMs (AboDalam et al., 2022; Babu et al., 2022). In recent years, NP products have become a beneficial alternative instrument in alleviating abiotic stress factors, such as salt or drought soil stress (Gohari et al., 2021; Li et al., 2022; Rajput et al., 2022).

Plant-protection management is another positive application of nanotechnology. Agricultural crops are susceptible to attack by numerous diseases and pests. Further studies with the aim of identifying nano-agrochemicals with strong effects against phytopathogens under field conditions are needed. Agricultural crops require permanent monitoring of pathogens and effective plans to prevent and combat diseases and pests. Frequent applications of synthetic pesticides can have an environmental impact (Awad et al., 2022), and increasing pest resistance to traditional plant-protection products requires novel pest control methods. Identifying sustainable and effective solutions for plant protection is a challenge but also an opportunity for nanotechnologies.

The agricultural sector produces large amounts of waste. Agricultural waste management could be improved by the application of nanotechnologies. Agricultural waste can be exploited as a beneficial resource for nanoscience products at the nanoscale. This application is an important eco-friendly opportunity for nanotechnologies to reduce environmental pollution. Nanobiotechnology provides new instruments and products for the agricultural sector such as nano-insecticides, nanofertilizers, nanopesticides and nano-emulsions. Currently, one of the main purposes for agricultural and food security research is to develop eco-friendly production technology based on these innovative tools. Green synthesis of NPs from natural resources, such as plant extracts, bacteria and enzymes, is a new opportunity to develop innovative nanoproducts for eco-friendly agricultural technologies.

An illustration of the future implications of agricultural nanotechnology. They are agricultural technologies, agricultural policies, large-scale production, and regulatory system or legislation.

Fig. 1.8. The main future implications of agricultural nanotechnology.

Many NM-based products are being developed for commercial and technological purposes in the agricultural sector, but several studies also show some effects on the environment or health. Nanotechnologies in terms of efficiency, costs, risks for humans and animals, and environmental safety are still subjects of further study by researchers and companies. There are concerns regarding the interaction between these NP-based products with the environment, animals or humans. Identification of green sources based on natural resources is an important and useful option for the safety of the environment, animals, ecosystems and human health (Neme et al., 2021). The accumulation of NPs in plants and the impact on the health of animals or people must be a permanent concern of companies and scientists. Toxicity to animals and humans, and cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in plants caused by NPs have been reported (Chaud et al., 2021; Neme et al., 2021; Padilla-Camberos et al., 2022; Rajput et al., 2022; Sibiya et al., 2022). There are some concerns about the uptake of NPs by plants, humans, animals, and aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Thus, a complete environmental assessment must be carried out for each type of nanoproduct. Specific regulatory frameworks for environmental and human health risk assessments must be applicable to nanoformulations and proper guidelines for each type of nanoformulation are needed. All potential risks of NP applications should be evaluated and ensured before approval for agricultural purposes and food production.

Farmers and agri-business owners should focus more on applying new technologies intended to improve quality and agricultural production, in an effort to respond to the current and future global challenges. At the same time, farmers and agricultural companies want affordable and efficient products. The economic impact of nano-agrochemicals must be evaluated carefully, with the cost of agricultural technologies being an essential factor for the sustainability of agri-businesses. In order for nanoproducts to be made on an industrial scale, it is necessary that the production cost and the selling price be reasonable. Another challenge for nanotechnologies is the availability of raw materials. The need for plant protection and fertilization is immense in agriculture. In order to meet these needs in agriculture, the raw material for nanoproducts must be accessible and found in abundance. As a new domain for the research and development sector, the delivery, packaging, storage, and durability of components, as well as safe application techniques of nanoproducts are other essential socio-economic variables for further research.

Research activities related to nanoscience should address research, testing, and production of NMs and green NPs, such as methods of synthesis, characterization of physico-chemical properties, environmental issues, and field studies. The size of the NPs, concentration, and method of application are other factors that must be addressed in depth for each type of nanoproduct. In addition, the research must be extended to other species and cultures located in different climatic zones. Appropriate regulatory frameworks for dealing with nanotechnologies are essential to increase confidence in these new nanoscale products and to minimize potential risks. Every country that produces nanoproducts must have a strict legislative framework, concrete guidelines and procedures for the use of nanoproducts, and a nanoproducts certification system.

In conclusion, nanotechnology is an advanced technology that could resolve a number of agricultural and environmental issues, from plant protection and resistance to abiotic stress factors to productivity and quality. Nanotechnologies thus provide an opportunity and potential solutions for future agricultural sustainability and food security.

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