“They Helped Shape Philadelphia between 1950 and 2000”: Volume 1

By WD Palmer

For more than a hundred years, the entertainment industry has both struggled with and perpetuated the spectre of racism. At times, it has been guilty of portraying racist tropes or presenting employment barriers with little regard for how they extend the prejudices of society. In better moments, it has been in the forefront of breaking down barriers within society in an entertaining, thought-provoking, and pioneering way. So many of the impressions that we form come from the entertainment we consume. It is from the entertainment arts and media of each era that we learn about the prevailing attitudes toward racial minorities; it is also by way of the entertainment arts and media that we are able to educate and attempt to overturn these prejudices in the fight toward racial equality, openness, and inclusivity. Minority voices are still critically underrepresented in the world of mainstream media and entertainment. An open tent and positive portrayals of minorities in entertainment are vital to this fight.
Racism spreads like a virus with strains that develop and mutate throughout time, infecting everything that they come in contact with. Just as we have been continuously tested for coronavirus over the past year, we must check our biases regularly and be ready to correct any flaws we see in our journey toward eradicating the scourge of racism once and for all. Despite the progress that has been made, there is still a long way to go.
This book will share the research I have compiled for the Palmer Foundation on how race is portrayed historically in film and theatre, presenting examples of the successes and shortcomings that entertainment has added to the dialogue about race over the decades.

• Language: English
• Publisher: AuthorHouse
• Release date: Jun 30, 2023
• ISBN: 9798823010900

WD Palmer

W. D. Palmer is the founder and director of the W. D. Palmer Foundation (est. 1955), a repository of information-gathering on racism in health, education, employment, housing, courts, prisons, higher education, military, government, politics, law, banking, insurance, etc. He is also the founder of the Black People’s University of Philadelphia (1955) Freedom School, which was the grassroots organizing and training center for grassroots community and political leadership in Philadelphia and nationally. These organizations were run as nonprofit unincorporated associations from 1955 until 1980, when the Palmer Foundation received its 501(c)(3) federal tax exemption status. W. D. Palmer has also been a professor, teaching American Racism at the University of Pennsylvania since the 1960’s and today he is a member of the Presidents Commission on 1619, the 400-year anniversary of African slavery in America. Professor Palmer has been a social activist leading the fight against racial injustice for over seventy years in Philadelphia and around the nation. In 2018, Philadelphia honored him for the organizing work he did to reform the Philadelphia school system in 1967.

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2023 WD Palmer. All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without the written permission of the author.

Published by AuthorHouse 06/30/2023

ISBN: 979-8-8230-1083-2 (sc)

ISBN: 979-8-8230-1090-0 (e)

Any people depicted in stock imagery provided by Getty Images are models,

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Certain stock imagery © Getty Images.

Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

Contents

Credits

Walter D. Palmer Leadership School

About the Artist

The Mural Arts Project

A Brief Biography of Professor Walter Palmer

Disclaimer

Introduction

1. Thomas Anderson

2. Augustus Baxter

3. Louise Williams Bishop

4. Eugene Bivins

5. Lucien Blackwell

6. Judge John Braxton

7. Lynnette Brown

8. Reverend Dwight Campbell

9. John Churchville

10. Vivienne Crawford

11. Jim Davis

12. Shirley Dennis

13. Nelson Diaz

14. James Eberhardt. Jr.

15. Falakah Fattah

16. Tom Flemming

17. Terry Flores

18. George Gardiner

19. Vincent Gordon

20. Anthony Gray

21. John Green

22. Mary Halliday

23. Eleanor Jean Handley

24. Harold Haskins

25. Julius Hayes

26. Arthur James, Sr.

27. Richard James

28. Heshimu Jaramogi

29. Al Jasper

30. Andrew Jenkins

31. Terry Johnson

32. Tyrie Johnson

33. Curtis Jones Jr.

34. Veronica Joyner

35. Charles Kahm

36. Omjusisu Kentu

37. Oba Kernoodle

38. Bert Lancaster

39. Walter Lear J.

40. Jim Lester

41. Anthony Lewis

42. Claude Lewis

43. Louis Massiah

44. Thomas McGill L

45. Denise Mendoza

46. Robin Miller

47. Acel Moore

48. Mabel Morris

49. Angel Ortiz

50. Tom Palmer

51. Charles R. Patton

52. Robert Perkins

53. Steve Pina

54. Jessie Pincus

55. Malcolm Poindexter

56. Reginald Pollit

57. Ronald J. Pressley

58. Bilal A. Quayyun

59. Mike Reed

60. Tyron Reed

61. Jim Reed

62. Charles Reeves

63. Edward Robinson Jr.

64. James Robuck

65. Willy Rogers

66. Claude Ross

67. Phillys Rowden

68. Joe Saidel

69. Kenneth A. Salaam

70. Maurice Sampson

71. Ruth Seward

72. Rev. Lorenzo Shepard Jr.

73. Herb Showell

74. Michael Simmons

75. Randall Sims

76. John Skief

77. Horace Small

78. Larry Smallwood

79. Carol Smith

80. Elmer Smith

81. Roxie Smith

82. Norman Spencer

83. Sam Statton Jr.

84. William Story

85. Janet Stotland

86. Bennie Swans

87. Theresa Sylvester

88. Marilyn Tadlock

89. Ann Torragrossa

90. Virginia Trehern

91. Jerry Walker

92. Luther E. Weaver III

93. Cornell Webb

94. Dennis Wesley

95. William Wheeler

96. Beverly Williams

97. Charles Williams

98. Judy Wicks

99. Ralph Wynder

Bibliography

Credits

They Shaped Philadelphia

Between 1950-2000

Coordinator/ Cover Layout

Ashley Scott

Digitization/ Editing

Ashley Scott

Brianna Camero

Marisol Sanchez

Albert Valentino

Nicole Babiarz

Lydia Yoo

Walter D. Palmer Leadership School

school.jpg

Walter D. Palmer is the founder and director of The W. D. Palmer Foundation (est. 1955), a repository of information-gathering on racism in health, education, employment, housing, courts, prisons, higher education, military, government, politics, law, banking, insurance, and more.

He is also the founder of the Black People’s University of Philadelphia (1955) Freedom School, which was the grassroots organizing and training center for grassroots community and political leadership both in Philadelphia and nationally.

These organizations were run as nonprofit unincorporated associations from 1955 until 1980, when the W. D. Palmer Foundation received its 501(c)(3) federal tax exemption status.

W. D. Palmer has also been a professor, teaching American Racism at the University of Pennsylvania since the 1960s and today he is a member of the President’s Commission on 1619, the 400-year anniversary of African slavery in America.

Professor Palmer has been a social activist leading the fight against racial injustice for over 70 years in Philadelphia and around the nation. In 2018, Philadelphia honored him for the organizing work he did to reform the Philadelphia school system in 1967.

In 2020, Philadelphia honored him for 65 years of fighting for social justice throughout the country. In 1980, he led the fight for parental school choice which helped the Governor of Pennsylvania get a law passed in 1997, and in 2000 he created the Walter D. Palmer Leadership Charter School.

In 2005, he borrowed $11,000,000 to build a 55,000 square foot two-story building on two acres of land in North Philadelphia, which was donated to the school by the City of Philadelphia, and because of the school’s rapid growth, in 2010 he acquired the Saint Bartholomew Catholic High School for his middle and high school.

In 10 years, the school grew from 300 elementary and middle school students to 200 preschoolers and over 1,000 kindergartens to twelfth graders. In 2005, W. D. Palmer commissioned a muralist to paint over 400 pre-selected portraits on the school walls, corridors, and stairwells, with a goal to paint 30 15-foot murals in the gymnatorium.

Although the Walter D. Palmer Leadership School recruited at-risk children that were from 17 of the poorest zip codes in Philadelphia and 300% below poverty, the school boasted a 95% daily attendance, 100% high school graduation rate, and 100% postgraduate placement in four-year and two-year colleges, trade and technology schools, or military, until the school’s closing in 2015.

About the Artist

Cavin%20Painting.jpg

My Life in The Sunshine

Colored pencil, gouache, marker, collage on paper

34 x 26

1987

Cavin Jones is a painter and muralist from Philadelphia. He received his Bachelor of Fine Arts in Painting from the Tyler School of Art in Elkins Park, Pennsylvania. He then went on to receive his Master of Fine Arts in Painting from Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri.

He has a unique style, including collage, which he says allows him to distill his various ideas and interests into a single painting. Cavin sees his work as a way to stimulate dialogue about issues surrounding race and environmentalism. He has been featured in many prestigious collections and exhibitions. Cavin’s art is inspired by American history, environmental exploitation, and the African American experience.

The Mural Arts Project

The mural arts project was created by Professor Walter Palmer, then designed, drawn and painted on the walls of the institute between 2005 and 2014 by Philadelphia muralist Cavin Jones. The project, which has been described as a national and international treasure and a living museum of literacy, history, social studies and humanities through art, is unparalleled to anything like it in the nation or around the world.

A Brief Biography of Professor Walter Palmer

After a tumultuous juvenile life, Professor Palmer graduated from high school and was hired by the University of Pennsylvania hospital as a surgical attendant and was eventually recruited by the University of Pennsylvania School of Inhalation and Respiratory (Oxygen) Therapy.

After his certification as an inhalation and respiratory therapist, he was hired by the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia as the Director of the Department of Inhalation and Respiratory (Oxygen) Therapy, where he spent 10 years helping to develop the national field of cardiopulmonary therapy.

In 1955, Palmer created the Palmer Foundation and the Black People’s University of Philadelphia Freedom School and would spend the next 70 years developing leaders for social justice nationally.

Professor Palmer has also pursued further education at Temple University for Business Administration and Communications, Cheyney State University for a Teacher’s Degree in History and Secondary Education. And at age 40, acquired his juris doctorate in law from Howard University.

Between 1965 and 1995, he produced and hosted radio programs on Philadelphia WDAS, Atlantic City WUSS, and WFPG Radio, in addition to Philadelphia NBC TV 10 and New Jersey Suburban Cable Television.

In 2006, he was inducted into the Philadelphia College of Physicians as a Fellow for the body of work he had done over the past 70 years, after having spent ten (1980-1990) years as a licensed financial officer teaching poor people how to overcome poverty by saving and investing three dollars per day.

During that entire period, Professor Palmer led the Civil Rights, Black Power and Afrocentric movements in Philadelphia, around the country as well as the Caribbean and West Indies.

In the 1980s to 2015, he led the school choice movement, organized a state-wide parental school choice group which collected 500,000 petitions in 1997, which were used to create a charter and cyber school law in Pennsylvania, and in 2000 the Walter D. Palmer School was named after him.

In 1962, he created a school without walls on the University of Pennsylvania’s campus and became a visiting lecturer in the Schools of Medicine, Law, Education, Business, History, Africana Studies, and Engineering, and he currently is a lecturer in the Schools of Medicine, Social Work, and Urban Studies, where he teaches courses on American racism.

In 1969, he helped the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Social Work students and faculty create required courses on American racism, making the University of Pennsylvania the first school in American academia to have such courses.

In 2019, Professor Palmer was appointed to the President’s Commission on commemorating the 400-year (1619) anniversary of American slavery. Over his many years of teaching, he has received the title of Teacher Par Excellence and has amassed over 1,000 medals, trophies, plaques, certificates, and awards for participation in multiple disciplines.

Disclaimer

We are community members and student interns, not professional authors.

Introduction

Compiled in this publication are interviews with community members and residents of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania who lived through historical moments in the city’s history and many of whom fought voraciously for the rights of Black people in Philadelphia and beyond. Each of these interviews sheds light on these historical moments and details how each person helped shape the trajectory of Philadelphia. These oral histories allow us to understand the events of the past from a first-hand perspective and remain connected with those interviewed. Each of these interviews contributes to the broader history of Philadelphia and recognizes the lasting legacy of each of the interviewees.

Thomas Anderson

Interviewed by: Crystal D. Deazle

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What three issues do you think were most important during the following periods?

1950 - 1960

Korean War

Civil Rights

Race Issue

Right to vote

1960 - 1970

Vietnam War

Civil Rights Movement

Affirmative Action legislation

Civil unrest - various minority groups started to ask questions of the federal government.

1970 - 1980

Empowerment issues - development and establishment of community-based control over resources

Immigration of other minority groups into this country

Civil Rights

Negative portrayal of African Americans in the media

Breakdown of traditional values and an increase in materialism

Loss of respect for traditional African American institutions such as the church

1980 - 1990

The vote is no longer a powerful tool because less African Americans are voting.

Increase in the number of African Americans in jails.

Shift in political power from liberal environment to conservative sphere which was unsympathetic to the issues facing people of color (Reaganomics and Bushanomics)

1990 - 2000

Diversity

Education

Technological issues - Key to surviving in the 21st century.

Schism between different cultures

Equal Rights is still a pressing issue.

Who were the most significant figures locally during the following periods?

1950 - 2000:

Who were the most significant figures nationally during the following time periods?

1950-2000:

What positive outcomes came about during the following time periods?

1950 - 1970

Affirmative Action legislation

Empowerment issues - when the opportunities became available there was a steady supply of educated Black professionals who were able to move into the newly created positions.

Blacks were able to hold public office.

Right to vote

Civil Rights legislation

1970 - 2000

Opening of services in areas such as communication and the media

Although a glass ceiling still exists, Blacks were able to experience some upward mobility in many areas of American society.

An increase in community-based control of resources

What contributions did you make during the following time periods?

1950 - 2000

Mr. Anderson was involved in the college movement to integrate public areas, such as lunch counters. He has also been involved in gang control prevention in Philadelphia. Currently, he is working in the field of education.

Did you work on any projects with Professor Walter Palmer during those periods?

1950 - 2000

Thomas Anderson stated that he had indirectly worked with Professor Palmer on a variety of different fronts.

Augustus Baxter

Interviewed by: Onyx Finney

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From 1950-60s what 3 issues do you think were the most important?

In the 1950s and late 1940s the major issues were civil rights and human rights. A part of America was going through a turmoil. They were going through transition and change. The most important issue was to make sure that the constitution of America provided each citizen with that equal right, opportunity, and protection under the law. To see that there were adequate employment and job opportunities as so stated in the constitution of the United States. To see there was adequate education and housing. The law of the land should prevail, regardless of race, creed, or color, what we saw was race, environment, education and housing. There’s a new phenomenon when you see all these young people playing on the college football teams. When I was coming up, they didn’t exist. Ohio State and those other southern universities. There was no room. They didn’t have great representation of Afro Americans, in the normal Anglo-Saxon universities throughout the United States. So, part of our concern was to open the doors. Equal rights and equal opportunities were a part of what we were able to do, what we were entitled to. These were the things that [we] saw during this time but there were some others because there was great discrimination. In 1944-45, there was a major crisis as it relates to transportation in this city. They had to bring out the U.S. army to protect Afro Americans. In Philadelphia there was something known as PTC. That was the Public Transportation Authority. There was a major crisis and riot because they said, if we would give Afro Americans the opportunity to become operators on trolley cars. If we gave Afro Americans the opportunity to become conductors on the trolley cars, they would run the trolleys off the track and kill thousands of people, because it was too complicated a piece of machinery for [the] Afro American’s mind to be able to control. So, when the first Black was appointed and recommended for the job, this town was in uproar, so they brought in the U.S. Army. So, what did that mean? Machinery and technical items were far too difficult for the Afro American mind to comprehend.

So, when the army was brought in and the national guards, and the first Black had the job to drive the trolley, now the trolley ran on tracks. The feeling was we couldn’t keep it on track. The machinery was too complicated. The truth was it was stressful and difficult for the average white man to be able to handle, so they knew a Black could not. That’s enough to blow your mind! So, you had the conductor and then the operator in the front with the crank handle and the bell. In the middle you had passes which would tell you where to connect to the right trolley. The man that would have the responsibility to be able to handle transfers was so complicated they would never ever remember the schemes.

Remember all the different routing systems and the different trolley connections. We would never be able to do that because our minds weren’t equipped to handle it. When they put the conductor and operator on, not only did they do well, after about three weeks... after that whole summer. They finally withdrew the troops. We’re talking about a complicated piece of equipment. Too complicated for the African American. So, when we’re talking about the 50s, this is an example, we are talking about housing, education, employment. All the things important for all human beings. To open the doors.

Opening America’s minds allowing to breath freely so that [they] can understand that we were asking for our right of place. What we were entitled to. Not something they had to give us. We fought very hard and very courageously. You must remember this is up north. The South had a different type of mentality. Blacks were still highly segregated. Segregation was still in the north, but it didn’t appear so. However, it was very evident in the South.

They didn’t have voting rights, they never registered to vote, they were frightened and intimidated. Obviously voting was a major issue. It’s a big, complicated picture. This picture had to include a broad variety of things to allow Afro Americans a place, that’s the full scope of what America had to offer. The Voting Rights Act gave us the right to vote.

Who were the most significant figures nationally during this period?

Adam Clayton Powell, Mr. White (head of NAACP), Raymond Pace Alexander, Sadie Alexander, SNCC, CORE, Judge Higginbotham, Rap Brown, Panther Party. Young people who were the heads of some of these organizations were the fire brands of change. It wasn’t the intellectuals; they became involved afterward. People who decided they wouldn’t take anymore.

What were the positive outcomes?

Freedom rides opened the opportunities for African Americans to travel freely throughout America. Opened theaters, restaurants, etc. Opportunities for colleges and universities, entry into corporate America. In part of the process, they always had a Black in corporate America so that he/she could begin to learn the process. By having that one, it began to open the door for others. However, for some, they didn’t [help] any others to come because they made it. Education, recreation, economics, law, religion, finance, philosophy, constitutional law. The whole field of economics. Doors opened like a flower ready to bloom. It was a changing point in America. It became America. Young people were the change agents. That’s why we have people in Harvard and Yale. They fought structures within their own town and cities. Rosa Parks. First of the middle-aged folks who took a major stand. Led to the bus boycotts. I started with transportation in Philadelphia, now we’re in the South. This led to a domino effect across the country. The walls of segregation began to crumble. The fear (whites) went from the front of the mind to the rear.

What contributions did you make during this period?

Worked with gangs in Phila. Advocate to change the educational institutions and help part of city government. One of the first things I did was to ask. Clarke to consider running for mayor of Philadelphia, when the Gilmore Clarke era came, and I was at St. Paul’s Baptist Church, Luther Cunningham was the first civil service commissioner in the history of Pennsylvania for Afro Americans. I was a young teen that helped to bring about change from this administration going from Republican to Democrat, we called community meetings to get people out. To get opportunities for employment. I also worked for Quaker Settlement.

The Quakers were at the forefront of change. Most of the planning for things was done through Quaker organizations. I was a part of Friend’s Neighborhood Guild and the Friend’s Meeting House. Part of my process was turning teenagers around and getting them responsible. Organizing in public housing projects, getting people to vote. Setting people up to bring about change in Philadelphia’s political structure because the republicans were very powerful. Change the administration to afford opportunities for jobs, etc.

Did you work on any projects with Prof. Palmer

Yes. I worked on a number of projects with Palmer. He was one of the bright young shining stars like Rap Brown and Stokely Carmichael. He knew them and was on the cutting line of change. He confronted the mayors, senators, and congressmen. As well as anyone who held a political position. Bank presidents, law firms. About what was right and for change. He protested and marched. Walter was one of the best activists we had in this town because he was very bright. Many people are sitting in key positions because of him.

What are the 3 major issues from 1960s-1970s?

We got a chance to sit on some of the boards and committees: education, judges, etc. Once young people graduate from college there was a place for them now. Advocate on bicentennial committee. There were about six Blacks. Being a part of this committee gave us a chance to look into some of the major banking institutions to make change, there were a lot of programs. As a result, I went abroad to England, Africa, Spain. I was also sent to study industrialized housing in England. I created special schools under the desegregation act (Philadelphia magnet schools). When you get on the inside whether you sit at the chair, you try to sit where you can do the most good, the most change. You pray when you leave those things will be in existence and African Americans will still have the opportunities. The fascinating thing is these kids who went through these magnet schools whether they were doctors, lawyers, have made their mark. Before this there was no opportunity except for Central and Girl’s High. I created an opportunity for Blacks who couldn’t go to those schools. I didn’t create this opportunity for my daughter. She was already in Masterman [School], so for her it was a natural progression.

Louise Williams Bishop

Interviewed by: Francis Lewis

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What three issues do you think were most important during this period?

1950-1960: Congressional Testimony and Accusing Communism

Who were the most significant figures locally during these periods?

1960-1970: Cecil B. Moore, Black Panthers, George Woods

1970-1980: Raymond Pace Alexander

1980-1990: Lem Sullivan

Who were the most significant figures nationally during these periods?

1960-1970: Angela Davis, Martin Luther King, Malcom X,

1970-1980: Huey Newton, Storley Carmichael

What positive outcomes came about during these periods?

1960-1970: Civil Rights Movement, gained job opportunities, affirmative action, school desegregation, housing, busing.

What contributions did you make during those periods?

1950-1960: Constantly raising issues over the air waves via communication regarding noted concerns.

1960-1970: Constantly raising issues over the air waves via communication regarding noted concerns.

1970-1980: Constantly raising issues over the air waves via communication regarding noted concerns.

1980-1990: Constantly raising issues over the air waves via communication regarding noted concerns.

1990-2000: Constantly raising issues over the air waves via communication regarding noted concerns.

5. Did you work on any projects with Professor Palmer during these periods?

1950-2000: No

Eugene Bivins

Interviewed by: Dara Ross

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What three issues do you think were most important during this period?

1950-1960

- Civil rights

1960-1970

- Civil rights

1970-1980

- Vietnam War

1980-1990

- Still civil rights. Internationally, all kinds of problems; people tortured, murdered, civil rights taken away.

1990-2000

- Civil rights, education (It’ll be a fight till I’m dead)

Who were the most significant figures locally during those periods?

1950-1960

- Dilworth, Clark

1960-1970

- Dilworth, Clark

1970-1980

- Governor Milton Shappe

1980-1990

- Frank Risell

1990-2000

- Governor Ridge

Who were most significant figures nationally during those periods?

1950-1960

- Pres. Eisenhower

1960-1970

- Pres. Kennedy

- Pres. Johnson

- Martin Luther King, Jr.

1970-1980

- Pres. Nixon

- Pres. Carter

1980-1990

- Pres. Reagan

- Pres. Clinton

1990-2000

- Pres. Clinton

- Alan Greenspan

What positive outcomes came about during those periods?

1950-1960

- 1954 - Civil Rights Supreme Court decision: Topeka v. Board of Education

1960-1970

- 1964 - Civil Rights law that Johnson passed after Kennedy was killed (It didn’t do much good cause no one enforces the law, but it was there)

- Investigation of UFOs by private citizens

1970-1980

- 1974 - Vietnam War ended.

- Discovery of Watergate (better understanding that you couldn’t trust government. There was nothing wrong with the Constitution, it just must be enforced)

- Nixon dethroned (good as far as I’m concerned)

- UFO investigations continue

1980-1990

- Reagan’s check of air traffic control starts check on inflation

1990-2000

- Clinton and Greenspan’s policies are positive for the economy, inflation still in check

What contributions did you make during those periods?

Mr. Bivins is sending the information. His wife was interviewed as well and is sending her dissertation in which Mr. Bivins’ contributions are also discussed.

Did you work on any projects with Professor Palmer during those periods?

Mr. Bivins never worked on the same projects but was involved in the same continuous struggle in which Prof. Palmer was involved. He contributed to the Palmer Foundation, but he wasn’t sure if that counts as working on a project together.

Lucien Blackwell

Interviewed by: Christa Demeke

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Lucien Blackwell was born in 1931, he is one of nine children. He was born and raised in Philadelphia, his father was a coal miner, and he comes from a working-class family. Lucien Blackwell attended West Philadelphia High School, he left high school early to work on the waterfront to help support his family. He served in the military during the Korean War and was stationed in Korea.

While working on the waterfront Blackwell became involved with seeking fair wages and working conditions for the longshoreman. He joined the Longshoreman Association and played a very active role in the union. For seven years he was the Vice President of the union, he also held the position of Business Agent. He then became President of the union. During this time Lucien Blackwell was also involved in local politics, he was a city councilman for sixteen years. Within the city council he served in several capacities ranging from Finance Committee Chairman to Majority Whip. In 1991 Lucien Blackwell was elected to the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania’s Second Congressional District, he served two terms in Congress. He also served two terms in the State House. Blackwell was also Chairman of the Gas Commission for the city of Philadelphia for four years, during which he fought against rate increases and was successful in keeping the rates from increasing in his four years as Chairman.

Blackwell has traveled extensively. He has always traveled as a leader and within a leadership capacity. He has traveled to Rome, Italy and met with the Pope, Johannesburg, and Cape Town, South Africa to meet with Nelson Mandela, he has traveled to Chile, Argentina, Brazil, Germany, France, China, Korea, Japan, as well as West Africa and several other nations.

What three issues do you think were most important during this period?

1950-1960

Congressman Blackwell believes that one of the most important issues of this time was employment and the state of the job market. Both Blackwell’s father and brother served in World War II and found upon their return to the U.S. a scarcity of employment opportunities, many times after war there is little work, the war produces an economic boom, and the economy picks up and then when the war is over the large number of manual labor workers are not necessary and so these workers are forgotten about. During the Korean War, Congressman Blackwell felt that there was an economic boom in the U.S. in efforts to support the war, but with the end of the war this boom came to a halt, when I returned from Korea in 1954 the economy slowed down. Congressman Blackwell worked as a foreman and a labor leader on the waterfront after returning from Korea. Congressman Blackwell described the nature of work on the docks, we loaded and unloaded shoes, coats, food, you name it, on and off of trucks and boats, it was all done with manual labor during this period, it might take eight hours for four men to unload a shipment of thousands of shoes out of just one truck. In this industry the nature of the manual labor necessitated large numbers of workers to be hired.

Along with discussing the economic state upon his return from Korea, Congressman Blackwell also told me a little about his experience in the military. When President Truman integrated the troops there was a great deal of tension and hostility within the armed forces, Blacks were treated horribly. Blackwell became a spokesman and an activist during his service, he felt that he had to speak out against wrongs and fight for the rights of Black soldiers. He witnessed the blatant discrimination and racism when he saw the white soldiers, who trained alongside him, get sent to Germany while all the Black soldiers were sent to Korea where the fighting was taking place.

Congressman Blackwell also recounted the first time he was discriminated against which occurred in St. Louis, Missouri where he was sent for training. Two white soldiers along with Blackwell and one other Black soldier went to a local restaurant to get something to eat. Upon walking into the restaurant Blackwell recalled how everyone stopped and stared at them, Blackwell thought that it was their uniforms, and the people were impressed because of their uniforms, little did he know that it was their skin color which made all the white customers turn and stare. The hostess came over to Blackwell with a big smirk on her face and asked what they needed; Blackwell replied that they would like some dinner. The hostess made up some story that all soldiers needed meal tickets to eat there and asked them if they had any, of course they didn’t because the tickets did not exist, but they pulled out their money and she proceeded to turn them away. When the four got outside the restaurant the two white soldiers apologized and Blackwell, being the young tough guy he was pretended that it was nothing and he didn’t care, but I’ll tell you I did care, of course I cared and looking back the incident was very painful, and it really affected me. Coming out of the service, Blackwell was extremely bitter and racist due to the treatment and the attitudes he encountered during his time in service to his country.

1960-1970

In terms of the economic situation the wave of automation set in and manual labor was virtually wiped out by computers and containerization. Continuing to discuss his experience as a longshoreman and a representative of the workers on the docks, Congressman Blackwell noted the move from manual labor to automation on the docks as well as in all industrial sectors of the American economy. Starting in the mid-1960s corporate structure began preparing for the day that ordinary people would no longer be needed, Blackwell stated. This trend continued into the 1980s and has progressed ever since. As a labor leader, Blackwell recognized this squeezing out of the manual labor workers and the decrease in employment that it led to, and he fought for the rights of the workers to ensure that they would not simply be replaced and forgotten with the new technology which was endangering their importance to the industry. Around 1965 Congressman Blackwell negotiated what he called Automation Contracts for the longshoreman of Philadelphia, these contracts guaranteed the workers a specific salary whether or not they worked a certain number of hours, in working on these contracts, Blackwell helped to ease the transition from manual labor to automation and made sure that the workers we not left by the wayside as the computers and technologically advanced machines increasingly reduced the high levels of manual labor.

1970-1980

During this time the process of globalization took effect especially within the economic sector. Muck of the work which was previously done in the States was now being sent overseas. Corporations tried to say that American workers did not produce enough, and that productivity was too low, so that they could justify sending the work overseas and creating sweatshops there, stated Blackwell. Congressman Blackwell identified Japan as a main culprit in contributing to the problem of cheap labor overseas taking the place of the American jobs. Citing the huge trade deficit, estimated at 160 billion dollars, which is a definite low estimate. Congressman Blackwell discussed the problem which cheap labor overseas presents for the average American worker. While the East Asian countries produce vast quantities of goods to be shipped and sold in the United States, they do not open their markets to importation of American goods, so while we buy up all their exports, they do not reciprocate this exchange. Blackwell feels very strongly about this issue and has met with President Clinton and discussed this issue and the importance of not just free trade but fair trade between the United States and the East Asian nations. Congressman Blackwell has also traveled to Korea, China and Japan and met with business leaders in efforts to urge them to remedy this trade deficit and allow American made products to be sold throughout these countries as the United States allows their products to be sold here.

As a result of this trade deficit many Americans are left without employment. Congressman Blackwell believes that this leads to many of the social problems we face today, such as homelessness, unemployment, dropout rates in high schools and inability to attend college. While the cost of living goes up these problems become even more drastic. Congressman Blackwell talked about how the power structure in this country determines the wage structure and the present wage structure which we have, minimum wage and no benefits for most workers. Blackwell refers to this situation as peace time wages and war time prices, meaning that while prices and the cost of living continue to increase, the wages remain at a minimum which is not adequate to maintain a reasonable standard of living. Congressman Blackwell believes that this situation has escalated the division between the races, as it forces everyone to compete for the good jobs. Even the jobs which were once considered undesirable, became competitive, jobs which were traditionally designated for African Americans, such as janitors, high manual labor jobs, maids and housekeepers and service-oriented jobs, which before were the only type of jobs African Americans were allowed to have, were no longer strictly for African Americans. Due to the lack of jobs and the high skill level required for many jobs, whites were now forced to take jobs as janitors and such and in doing so they replaced many of the African Americans who have historically always been the last to be hired and the first to be fired. This competition in the marketplace for employment and the class struggle which accompanies it has led to a escalation in the race problem in America, according to Congressman Blackwell.

1980-1990 & 1990-2000

Affirmative Action was an important issue during this time and continues to be an issue which America must deal with. Congressman Blackwell expressed his opinions on the current trend of rolling back of Affirmative Action. He believes that if we are going to get rid of Affirmative Action, as has been already done in places such as California and other states, we must realize that the playing field must be evened out in some manner, and we cannot ignore that equal opportunity is not a reality in this country. Blackwell also commented on what he calls the Sham of America, the drastic extremes of wealth and poverty which exist throughout our nation, there is no country in the world like America, I have traveled all throughout the world, and I love America, there is no place else like it in the world, but we have the potential and means to feed, clothe, and house every single person in this country and still there are many who go hungry, who need jobs and who live in poverty.

Congressman Blackwell also cited welfare as a significant issue in this time frame. During the 1980s we began to see the lack of support that welfare offered. Many of the cutbacks in welfare have really continued the cycle of poverty, for example in housing projects where mothers receive funds to pay for food and necessities for themselves and their children, in the 1980s the aid which used to include the rent and the utilities, no longer covered the utilities in the public housing and these women were forced to use the little funding which did not increase, they received to pay for their utilities on top of their food and all other necessities. Welfare created the breakdown of the family and led to many other problems. Poor kids are trapped in smelly old places called public housing with no real assistance from the leaders in power. Congressman Blackwell took the West Philadelphia neighborhood as an example, explaining how poor children are deprived of the facilities which others enjoy, If we look at Overbrook High School in West Philly and we see that they have no track or field which they can practice on, they have very high dropout rates, while over in Northeast Philly you see brand new recreation centers and facilities for the kids to play. Congressman Blackwell is a fighter for Black rights and Black people and refuses to accept that children in West Philadelphia do not have the same opportunities as other children. Congressman Blackwell once fasted for four weeks in protest of the selling of drugs out in the open and all throughout the Richard Allen Housing Projects. Congressman Blackwell’s wife City Councilwoman Janie Blackwell grew up in these projects and they both fought for the rehabilitation of Richard Allen.

The drug problem in America continues to be an issue. Public housing has been overflowed with drugs and Congressman Blackwell mentioned the common theory that the CIA and other government officials did indeed sanction the saturation of the ghettos with crack, they allow drugs into the country, 10 billion dollars drug profits bring in and African Americans see about 1% of these profits and yet the majority of the men and women charged and jailed for drug offenses are Black. Congressman Blackwell investigated several prisons, including Camp Hill and Grayford Prison, in his investigations he found that while Blacks made up 12% of the population of the country, and yet 95% of the inmate population are Black men and women. Blackwell believes that if you do not give a man or women opportunities to succeed, they will succumb doing wrong, selling drugs, stealing and the list goes on.

One’s environment plays a large role in one’s view and perspective in life, growing up where these kids do, where there are no libraries, no swimming pools, no grass, this makes for a person to get angry angry at the situation and the life which they are many times locked into. There must be a release for this anger and Congressman Blackwell noted that unfortunately the outlet is usually a negative one such as Black on Black crime, robbing one another and killing one another. Blackwell attributes this behavior as failure to see the real enemy. Those who are oppressed take their anger out on those close to them, not those who are oppressing them. Congressman Blackwell cited these conditions as creating the problems. Looking back to the 1950s there was a common respect that people had for the elderly, and then in the 1960s this all changed and there was a definite change in the spirit of the young people, there were gangs on every block the 45 Street Gang, the 42 Street Gang on and on, for every block, the parents had given over the streets to the kids and there were many killing during this time up to 600 murders a year. Congressman Blackwell worked to stop the gang fighting and problems in the city of Philadelphia, he did studies about gang wars in the 1970s and worked on Resolution 67 to stop the violence due to gangs. Congressman Blackwell talked about Vera Cook and his sadness when he saw in the paper her son had been shot in his high school. Many young people were killed unnecessarily, and this is what motivated Blackwell to try to help to end the violence.

Congressman Blackwell strongly believes that there is not a race problem in this country but a class problem, there is no race struggle in this country, what we do have is a class struggle. Poor Blacks and whites have to see what’s really going on, they have to come together and unite, only then will the poor really have a voice and will be paid attention to. Blackwell believes that race is used divisively to prevent this unity between the underclass across color lines, and this leads to a failure to see the real enemy.

Who were the most significant figures locally during these periods?

Congressman Blackwell talked about Walt Palmer, It’s because of people like him that I was in the city council, people like Walt Palmer fought to get Blacks into institutions such as the University of Pennsylvania who not so long ago would not allow Black students to attend, he is truly one of the unsung heroes, the battles of life are not fought by people like me, I have been in the media practically all my life, I have had the spotlight, but it’s those who lead the daily fight, those who take care of the details while I fight for the laws to get passed, it those people like Walt who have put me where I am today. Walt is like Paul who was commissioned to plant the seeds and God granted him the success, just as Walt has been commissioned to lead the fight for the people and God has also granted him success.

Congressman Blackwell also named his father. Freedom George, Cecil Moore, Reverend Sullivan, Mayor Tate, Frank Rizzo, Charlie Bowser. As well as the Black Ministers Alliance, who initiated the successful boycott of Tasty Cake who refused to hire Blacks in their stores, Wilson Goode, Harry Williams, the first African American to win as an independent, Edgar C. Campbell, Congressman Nicks, and Congressman Nicks Jr., who was the first Black chief justice of the Supreme Court of Philadelphia and in the country.

Who were the most significant figures nationally during those periods?

Congressman Blackwell felt that Martin Luther King Jr. was very significant and did more to galvanize Black people in this country than any other figure throughout history. Malcolm X also had a great impact. Congressman Blackwell told me that during the time that he was organizing on the docks he was interested in the Black Muslims and would often go to meetings or learn about what they had to say, when Malcolm X came to Philadelphia, he had wanted to meet Blackwell. Congressman Blackwell at this time was thinking about becoming Muslim but since my father was a deacon in the Baptist church and all my people, my whole family, is Christian, I was a little afraid. Congressman Blackwell also talked about how he felt when Martin Luther King and Malcolm X were murdered, I cried like a baby, I couldn’t understand it. Although Blackwell pointed out the differences in the two leaders’ philosophies, he believed that they were brothers, and they knew it. Blackwell believes that Gandhi was truly one of the greatest men that ever lived, he knew that really we all pray to the same god and there is unification between religions and cultures, Gandhi was a real hero for Congressman Blackwell. A. Philip Randolph, and James Farmer were also mentioned, as well as Paul Robeson and W.E.B. Dubois who were Blackwell’s heroes as a youngster.

What positive outcomes came about during those periods?

Congressman Blackwell noted that Blacks migrated from the rural South and obtained better jobs in the Northern cities, they moved to better neighborhoods and it seemed as though things were improving. Then Reagan took office in the 1980s, he brought back the animosity, he reversed progress and was very detrimental to the process of race relations. Congressman Blackwell commented on the fact that when the president refused to recognize that discrimination exists in this country, we had a real problem, we all suffered, both Black and white during this time. Congressman Blackwell also talked about our current situation, banks run the country now, although there are more billionaires now than ever, there are also more bankruptcies now than ever in history, 1% of the people own all of the wealth. While during the 1960s and 1970s unions were strong and people were able to pay their bills and live a decent life, now one must work extremely hard to make ends meet. Congressman Blackwell urged that people need to learn that it’s the system that has to change. He mentioned a bill which was very recently passed in the House which requires those in public housing to work without pay for a certain number of hours a week, I have nothing against a couple of hours of work, I really have no problem with that, but this bill is another inhumane attempt to humiliate those on public assistance, Blackwell commented.

What contributions did you make during those periods?

(Congressman Blackwell talked about some of his contributions but instead due to time constraints during the interview he offered to mail me his resume which goes into more detail about his contributions.)

Congressman Blackwell believes he is known as a loudmouth Black activist, who comes from a working-class background and fights for equal rights. For twelve years Congressman Blackwell has served as the Chairman of the Black Elected Officials, in this capacity he has played a role in every important decision made since 1970. Congressman Blackwell was instrumental in pushing the projects of Liberty One and Two which created many needed jobs. Congressman Blackwell sponsored the Human Rights Bill or the Cay Rights Bill which outlaws discrimination based on sexual orientation, creed, or color. During his time in the State House Congressman Blackwell supported the efforts against lowering the drinking age in Pennsylvania and stood behind a vending bill which would allow street vendors in Philadelphia to continue to sell their goods.

Did you work with Professor Palmer during any of these periods?

Congressman Blackwell has a great deal of respect for Walt Palmer, everything I have ever done and been with the help of and in conjunction with Walt Palmer. Congressman Blackwell also commented that Walt Palmer has never been honored the way he should be for his many contributions to Philadelphia. He feels very strongly that Dr. Palmer is one of the great ones, an unsung hero who has always been there working for the people who struggle day in and out.

Judge John Braxton

Interviewed by: Regine Acluche

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What three issues do you think were the most important during this period?

1950-1960: open housing, job opportunities, job advancement, economic development, and community

1960-1970: education, equality of education, equal employment, and housing

1970-1980: affirmative action, open housing, taking down barriers still involved with affirmative action.

1980-1990: Black political power. Black economic development, equality of education...public schools

1990-2000: economic development, equality of education

Who were the most significant figures locally during those periods?

1950-1960: Cecil Moore, Raymond Pace Alexander, Johnny Sills

1960-1970: Father Washington, Father Kaclick, Edgar Campbell, Samuel Evans

1970-1980: Milton Street, Georgie Woods, Herbert R. Lean

1980-1990: Bill Gray, Leon Sullivan, William T. Coleman Esq.

1990-2000: Chaka Fattah, Black clergy of Philadelphia, Dwight Evans, John Street

Who were the most significant figures nationally during those periods?

1950-1960: Adlai Stevenson, George Wallace, and Reverend Ike

1960-1970: Walter Palmer, Leon Sullivan, a group called the One Hundred

Ministers, John Street, Dwight Evans, Shirley Chisholm, George Wallace, Malcolm X, Robert Kennedy

1970-1980: Robert Coleman, Maynard Jackson, Ron Deloms

1980-1990: Pope John Paul, Jimmy Carter, John Johnson, owner of BET

1990-2000: Minister Farrakhan, Bill Clinton, Ron Brown, Colin Powell

What positive outcomes came about during those periods?

1950-1960: PTC was integrated. Orville Faubus caused Little Rock schools to be.

integrated by testing our resolve. Eisenhower

1960-1970: Pete Vermil

1970-1980: Joe Mianko

1980-1990: Charlie Bauser, Wilson Goode, Commissioner Neal, Henry Nicholas of 1199C, Commissioner Hairston

1990-2000: Schools have been integrated.

What contributions did you make during those periods?

1960-1970: Gave legal advice and didn’t charge for it.

1970-1980: Boy Scouts, Home Health Care

1980-1990: Leadership roles: Chairman of PCDC, I am on the Board of the Pennsylvania Minority Business Authority

1990-2000: 1 have worked on several political campaigns.

Did you work on any projects with Professor Palmer during those periods?

No. I was supportive of his efforts. He was active in the Mantua area.

Lynnette Brown

Interviewed by: Sonya Crosswell

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What three issues do you think were most important during this period?

1950-1960?

I was only ten years old at the time. Desegregation was the major issue both on the local and national level. I remember not being able to go places in Washington D.C. and Philadelphia. My mother was fair- skinned. She was able to go places that I couldn’t go because she was light- skinned and I was dark-skinned. Sometimes my mother’s girlfriend got to go places that even she (my mother) couldn’t go. So yes, that was the most important issue that stood out in my mind.

1960-1970?

Segregation: access for African Americans in terms of voting, education, and all the rights that African Americans are supposed to have. I’ll take voting out of that and make it a separate thing. So, I would say that the three main issues were voting, segregation, and access. When I say access, I’m really talking about Black empowerment. Black empowerment I could take many different ways, but voting would definitely be separate.

1970-1980?

Voting at the beginning of the 7Os was important. The important thing was continuing to help people understand their right to vote and to utilize it. At the end of the 7Os people became apathetic. We had to prove again to people that it was a right that they had and had to help them kind of connect it to their daily lives. Voting continued to be a major issue. I guess the rights kind of issues came more from the group and African Americans on a whole to individuals. It was a real struggle between a people’s movement and the individual’s movement. A me generation popped up, where you have people only thinking about themselves and not about the whole. It went from a people thing to an individual thing. I think then kind of brought that affirmative action stuff to light. So that opposed to having rights for African Americans on a whole, it became a right for an individual. It kind of played off itself, so that all the other movements started to come up at that point. For example, the women’s movement was a sort of spin-off of the Black movement. It diffused the issues around Blacks, and especially began to diffuse women. It went from a people’s issue to an issue that effects women. Separatism began to be more at the heart of things. The women’s issue and other groupings that were organizing for empowerment diffused the Black power movement.

1980-1990?

Reverse discrimination. The [disassembly] of minority social programs. Minority programs started coming about less. They are almost gone now. There was an attack on all minority programs because of reverse discrimination. There was the thinking that there was discrimination against whites because you had those kind of programs. You had people saying that the only reason why you got into school was because you were African American. At that point it was the attack of all those programs. The actual dismantlement came after 1990. The debate was on access programs. The other big issue was that people became discouraged and stopped utilizing their right to vote. Another big issue that came about in the 1980s was the attack on the family. It began to dismantle the social, political, and religious values the family would build on.

1990-2000?

During this period the question was how do African Americans regain advances that were made in the past? How do we maintain affirmative hiring and affirmative access to education? Also, how do we galvanize people to utilize the right to vote? People aren’t voting. They don’t see how voting affects their individual lives.

Who were the most significant figures locally during those periods?

1950-1960?

I would have to say Cecil B. Moore. That is the only person that 1 could remember at that time. Remember that I was only ten.

1960-1970?

Senator Hardy Williams, Cecil B. Moore, and Doctor Leon Sullivan.

1970-1980?

Cecil B. Moore, Hardy Williams, and Wilson Goode. Wilson Goode was the first and only African American mayor of the city of Philadelphia.

1980-1990?

Wilson Goode, the first African American mayor of the city of Philadelphia. I continue to say Senator Williams. He continued to be at the heart of grass roots issues and bringing them to the forefront. Dave Richardson was the state [legislator]. He went on to be a kind of people’s legislator. He just died last year or about two years now, I guess.

1990-2000?

Senator Williams was a member of the House first since 1967 then he ran for mayor in 1971. He remained in the House after that. He has been very instrumental on a number of campaigns. He was a Penn law school graduate. I would also say Dave Richardson and Ed Rendell.

Who were the most significant figures nationally during those periods?

1950-1960?

George Wallace comes to mind,