Old Testament Survey

By Paul R. House and Eric Mitchell

This updated third edition of Old Testament Survey revises the original edition and greatly expands its attention to historical, methodological, and geographical topics. These are combined with the second edition’s focus on literature and narrative, and an increased number of improved maps are also included. In all, the book charts every major element that unifies the Old Testament, making it an excellent companion for Bible reading, college/seminary classes, and pastoral research.  

• Language: English
• Publisher: BH Publishing Group
• Release date: Jun 15, 2023
• ISBN: 9781087749266

Paul R. House

Paul R. House (PhD, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary) serves as professor of divinity at Beeson Divinity School in Birmingham, Alabama. He has been a pastor or teacher in churches, Christian colleges, and seminaries for over thirty years. He is a past president of the Evangelical Theological Society and an active member of the Society of Biblical Literature. House is the author of numerous books, including Bonhoeffer’s Seminary Vision.

Book preview

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments

Maps

Illustrations

Images

Beginning the Study

Part I: The Law (Torah)

Chapter 1: Genesis: Creation, Corruption, and Covenant

Chapter 2: Exodus–Leviticus: Covenant and Community

Chapter 3: Numbers–Deuteronomy: The Land Promise Delayed

Part II: The Former Prophets

Chapter 4: Joshua: God Gives the Land

Chapter 5: Judges: Chaos in the Promised Land

Chapter 6: 1 and 2 Samuel: A Kingdom in the Promised Land

Chapter 7: 1 and 2 Kings: Losing the Land

Part III: The Latter Prophets

Chapter 8: Isaiah: Prophet of Sin and Salvation

Chapter 9: Jeremiah: Prophet of Punishment and the New Covenant

Chapter 10: Ezekiel: Prophet of God’s Presence and Israel’s Restoration

Chapter 11: The Book of the Twelve: Prophecy in Concert

Part IV: The Writings

Chapter 12: Psalms: How to Worship the Living God

Chapter 13: Job: How to Struggle with Life’s Tests and Doubts

Chapter 14: Proverbs: How to Grow in Wisdom

Chapter 15: Ruth: How to Overcome Personal Difficulties

Chapter 16: Song of Songs: How to Celebrate Love

Chapter 17: Ecclesiastes: How to Find Meaning in Life

Chapter 18: Lamentations: How to Mourn and Repent

Chapter 19: Esther: How to Survive in Exile

Chapter 20: Daniel: How to Maintain Distinctive Faith in Exile

Chapter 21: Ezra–Nehemiah: How to Rebuild

Chapter 22: Chronicles: How to Understand and Apply God’s Word for Renewal

Name Index

Subject Index

Scripture Index

"Old Testament Survey is a tremendous resource for those beginning formal study of the Old Testament, whether in school or for personal enrichment. The real gem of this book is its focus on the content of the scriptures in a way that highlights the unity of the Old Testament while also presenting the distinctive features of each biblical book. I love the way the authors navigated scholarly issues with sensitivity while keeping the explanation of the biblical story at the forefront."

—Rebecca Josberger, program chair of the master of biblical studies and professor of Hebrew and Old Testament, Multnomah University

"Decisively evangelical, intentionally literary, purposefully canonical, and historically informed, the authors deliver a concise and clear narration of the Old Testament for first-time readers in their third rendering of Old Testament Survey. Historical parallels and geographical locales appear at proper junctions to help create the best possible learners of the first part of the Christian scriptures. On a personal note, I have watched students acquaint themselves with the Old Testament for almost two decades with the first two editions. I am confident this project will continue to prove helpful in that task."

—Jeff Mooney, professor of Old Testament, California Baptist University

Professors House and Mitchell are reliable guides to the context, content, and canon of the Old Testament. This trusted textbook is highly readable and reflects first-rate biblical scholarship and a firm commitment to the complete truthfulness and enduring relevance of the sacred scriptures. The third edition is adorned with plentiful maps, photos, and charts and accompanied by a workbook to help teachers and students make the most of their study of the Old Testament.

—Brian J. Tabb, academic dean and professor of biblical studies, Bethlehem College and Seminary

OldTestamentSurvey3ed_TitlePages_PRINTOldTestamentSurvey3ed_TitlePages_PRINT1

Old Testament Survey, 3rd Edition

Copyright © 2023 by Paul R. House and Eric A. Mitchell

Published by B&H Academic

Brentwood, Tennessee

All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-1-0877-4926-6

Dewey Decimal Classification: 221

Subject Heading: OLD TESTAMENT

Except where noted, Bible translations are the authors’.

Scripture quotations are from the Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright © 2017 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Christian Standard Bible® and CSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers.

The ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®). ESV® Text Edition: 2016. Copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. The ESV® text has been reproduced in cooperation with and by permission of Good News Publishers. Unauthorized reproduction of this publication is prohibited. All rights reserved.

The King James Version, public domain.

The New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1971, 1977, 1995, 2020 by The Lockman Foundation. All rights reserved.

The web addresses referenced in this book were live and correct at the time of the book’s publication but may be subject to change.

Cover design by Brian Bobel. Cover image: King David Bearing the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem, by Domenico Gargiulo. Sourced from Album / Alamy Stock Photo.

Printed in China

28 27 26 25 24 23 RRD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Dedication (Paul)

To Jim Dixon

Pastor-Teacher-Author-Friend

Dedication (Eric)

To Nancy,

my wife & best friend

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Three decades ago, Paul worked with Trent Butler and his team to produce the first edition of Old Testament Survey . Trent was an accomplished Old Testament scholar, a helpful editor, and a thoroughly decent person. He taught Paul a lot. The book served many teachers and students, for which Paul remains thankful.

When it came time for the second edition, Paul recruited Eric to co-author that volume. Eric added important historical material and provided insights gleaned from his own work as a teacher, writer, and field archaeologist. Both Paul and Eric were glad to see the book help pastors, students, and lay people in a variety of settings. For this third edition, Paul has re-written several sections based on his research and writing done since the second edition appeared fifteen years ago. Eric has provided additional historical information, and he has chosen maps and photographs based on his extensive travel in the Middle East.

Paul thanks his wife, Heather for her unfailing support and help in editing the manuscript. He thanks family members David and Dawn Oldfield, Roy and Lee House, Suzanne Kingsley, Sunday Monson, Joel House, and Molly Spence for their encouragement, and Sarah House (1964-2022) for her example. He thanks Beeson Divinity School for its strong faculty development program funding and for being a good, collegial academic home. He also thanks Scott Hafemann, Ben Mitchell, Richard Bailey, Frank Thielman, Josh Turner, Robert Smith, Wendell Berry, and Tyshawn Gardner for their friendship during the writing of the book. Finally, he thanks Jim Dixon, his old friend, now battling illness as bravely as he preached God’s word for over forty years.

Eric is thankful for his wife, Nancy and her support & help in life. Years ago in doctoral work, Eric was Paul’s grader. Over the years, Paul helped Eric get his first teaching position, and has been a guide, encourager, mentor, and friend. Eric is grateful for Paul’s friendship. He thanks Southwestern Seminary for providing a sabbatical leave to work on the book. He also thanks Craig Mitchell, Kevin Kennedy, Berry Driver, and Archie England for their friendship during this past year while writing.

For these and other kindnesses, we are very grateful.

Paul House and Eric Mitchell

Maps

Modern States and the Ancient Near East     9

Modern Political Divisions of Ancient Palestine     14

International Routes     16

The Table of Nations     37

The Migration of Abraham     40

The Ancient Near East in the Time of the Patriarchs     43

Travels of Jacob     51

Egypt and Palestine in the Late Bronze Age     62

The Route of the Exodus     73

The Location of Mount Sinai     75

Kadesh-barnea     105

The Journey from Kadesh-barnea to the Plains of Moab     108

Natural Regions of Ancient Palestine     118

Limits of Israelite Settlement and the Land Yet to be Conquered     131

The Tribal Allotments of Israel     133

Climate Patterns of Ancient Palestine     134

Limits of Israelite Settlement and the Land Yet to Be Conquered     143

The Judges of Israel     146

The Sea Peoples     148

Ancient Near East from 1200–1000 BC: The Iron I Period     156

The Kingdom of Saul and His Wars     168

David’s Flight from Saul     177

David’s Rise to Power     183

David’s Wars of Conquest     187

The Kingdom of David and Solomon     197

Jerusalem in the Time of David and Solomon     199

Solomon’s Building Activities     205

Solomon’s Economic Enterprises     206

The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah     208

The Campaign of Shishak and Rehoboam’s Defense Lines     214

Elijah and Elisha     225

The Revolt of Jehu     228

The Rise of Assyria: Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III     230

The Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-pileser III     231

The Syria-Israelite Conflict     232

Tiglath-pileser III’s Campaigns and Areas Transformed into Assyrian Provinces     233

The Fall of Samaria and Deportation of Israelites     234

Hezekiah’s Jerusalem     251

Sennacherib’s Campaign against Judah     268

The Reign of Josiah     279

Nebuchadnezzar’s Campaigns against Judah     282

Judah during the Exile     291

Jewish Refugees in Egypt     298

Jewish Exiles in Babylonia     305

Prophets of the Eighth Century     317

Israel and Judah in the Days of Jeroboam II and Uzziah     323

Assyrian Districts after the Fall of Samaria     327

Edom Attacks: Nebuchadnezzar’s Campaigns against Judah     330

Jonah’s Journey     333

Assyrian Supremacy in the Seventh Century BC     342

The Rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire     345

Ancient Near East in the Time of Zephaniah     350

Palestine under Persian Rule     353

Zechariah Prophesies of Jerusalem Restored     356

Job     391

Naomi and Ruth’s Travels     419

The Persian Empire     449

The Conquests of Cyrus the Great     467

The Returns of Jewish Exiles to Judah     473

The Province of Judah and Nehemiah’s Enemies in the Fifth Century BC     477

Illustrations

Hebrew Bible Book Order     2

Major Events in Old Testament History     19

Hebrew Conception of the Universe     29

Noah’s Ark     33

Abraham’s Family     48

High Priest’s Garments     90

The Tabernacle and Its Court     93

Israelite Camping Arrangement     99

Israelite Four-Room House     113

Moses Sees the Promised Land from Afar     114

Comparative Chronologies for the Two Proposed Dates for the Exodus     125

The Judges of Israel     144

The Agricultural Year     152

David with the Head of Goliath     176

David’s Jerusalem     184

The Queen of Sheba before the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem     203

Kings of Judah (south)     210

Kings of Israel (north)     211

The Vision of the Prophet Ezekiel     244

Dates of the Prophets     245

The Prophet Isaiah      258

Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence     261

Hezekiah’s Tunnel Route     267

Bulla Seal of Baruch the Son of Neriah     277

Cistern     297

Ezekiel’s Temple     312

Jonah and the Whale     332

Reconstruction of a palace at Nineveh     335

King David Playing the Harp     368

Job and His Friends     394

King Solomon in Old Age     432

Still Life with a Wicker Wine Flask, Lemons, and Bread     435

Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem     440

The Destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem     441

The Flight of the Prisoners     443

Major Postexilic Events     451

Ancient Babylon     460

Kings of the Neo-Babylonian Empire     463

Statue in Nebuchadnezzar’s dream     465

Belshazzar’s Feast     466

Kings of Persia     479

Nehemiah’s Jerusalem     483

The Shepherd David     486

King David Purchasing the Threshing Floor of Araunah the Jebusite     488

Solomon’s Temple, Interior View     490

David’s Family     492

Images

Bedouin tent and herd in Syria     7

Assyrian relief of siege of Lachish     10

Relief from palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh     11

Amenhotep II in the canonical pose for Pharaoh     12

Basalt statue of an Aramean king     17

The heavens     26

Reconstructed ziggurat at Ur     34

Interior of a Bedouin tent     38

Aerial view of the Euphrates River     39

Reconstructed well at the entrance to Beer-sheba in southern Israel     45

View of Hebron looking toward the south     47

The Jabbok River     52

Dothan     53

Egyptian camel drivers     54

Cows in wheat field beside the Nile Valley at Beni Hasan, Egypt     55

Model of an Egyptian grain storage unit     56

A group of Asians as they enter Egypt     57

Nile River crossing at Beni Hasan     60

Brickmaking in Egypt     65

Ammit the crocodile god, Devourer of the Dead     68

A man applies Passover lamb blood to the lintel of his home     69

Chariot of King Tutankhamun     72

Wadi Gharandel, possible location of Elim     72

Ayun Musa, the springs (or wells) of Moses     74

St. Catherine’s Monastery at Jebel Musa     76

Jebel Sin Bishar, possible location for Mount Sinai     77

Early evidence of Hebrew writing     82

Horned altar from Megiddo     84

Incense altar from temple at Arad     84

Replica of the Table of the Bread of the Presence     85

Tabernacle replica at Timna     87

Sacrificial lamb     88

Four-horned altar from Beer-sheba     89

Stone mug     91

Desert of Paran     98

Ketef Hinnom inscription     100

The Rock of Edom     101

Cluster of grapes     102

Bronze incense shovel     103

Arnon River Valley     106

View toward Israel from Mount Nebo     110

The Stele of Hammurabi     111

Cattle of Bashan     122

Gilgal in the Jordan Valley     123

Looking east over the Jordan Valley from ancient Jericho     126

Flint knife     127

Modern Shechem     128

Mount Hermon     138

Amarna letter from Abdi-Heba, ruler of Jerusalem     139

Amarna letter from Labayu, king of Shechem 139

Victory Stele of Pharaoh Merneptah     140

Asherah figurine     145

Mount Tabor     147

Kishon River Valley     149

The Gezer Calendar     150

Spring of Harod at Ain Harod     153

Ancient winepress near Zorah     155

Gate to the city of Dan     158

The springs at Dan     159

The Elah Valley looking east     164

Shiloh, the location for the tabernacle     165

An aerial view of Tell es-Safi     173

Goliath inscription     174

Ancient sling and stone     175

Natural waterfall at En-gedi     178

The mountains of En-gedi     178

Endor     179

Mount Gilboa     180

The House of David inscription     181

The Forest of Ephraim     189

Abel-beth-maacah     190

Old Jerusalem looking north     194

Winged lion throne     198

Solomonic gate and casemate walls at Tel Hazor     201

Phoenician jug found at Tyre     202

Timna     202

Jezirat Fara’un/Ezion-Geber     207

Bronze bull     209

Reconstructed Canaanite high place at Tel Dan     212

Inscription of Shishak’s military campaigns against Israel and Judah     213

Tyre, Jezebel’s hometown     215

Baal figurine/idol     216

Region of Samaria     217

Tishbe, Elijah’s hometown     218

Wadi Qelt, traditional site for ravens feeding Elijah     219

Iron Age juglet     220

Elijah at Mount Carmel     221

Elijah’s cave at Mount Horeb/Sinai     222

Ruins of Tel Jezreel     222

Plaque: Woman looking out window     223

Temple to Baal-shamin in Palmyra, Syria     224

Stele of Chemosh     226

Tel Dan Stele     226

Stele of Mesha     227

Black obelisk of Shalmaneser III     229

Basalt gate     235

Storage jar from Lachish     236

The siege of Lachish     237

Israelite fortress at Arad     239

Israelite temple within the fortress at Arad     239

Most holy place within the temple at Arad     240

Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria     250

A pair of Assyrian chariots     252

Assyrian army attacking Lachish     255

Lament of Ur     257

The rulers of ancient Cush     263

Beautiful vineyard     264

The Siloam tunnel inscription     266

The Taylor Prism     269

Black marble record of Merodach-baladan     270

Burial cave in Jerusalem     272

A potter at work     276

Almond branch     283

Nabatean cistern     284

City gate at Gezer     288

Potter’s wheel     289

Relief of a drink offering     295

Ruins at Elephantine Island     299

Watchtower at Gamla     302

Torah scroll     306

Lament for Dumuzi/Tammuz     307

Incantation bowl     308

Ruins of Ahab’s palace in Samaria     316

The Valley of Jehoshaphat     319

Text from the book of Joel on a potsherd     320

Plumb line     322

Ivory palm tree     324

Ivory panel     324

Cows of Bashan     325

Petra in the southeast region of Edom     328

Sheep near the Wadi Hasa     329

Reconstruction of a palace at Nineveh     335

Reconstruction of the bands from the Balawat Gates     335

Moresheth-gath, Micah’s hometown     336

Lachish Ostracon/letter     337

Lachish     338

Olive press complex in Mareshah     339

Nineveh     341

Jezreel Valley     343

Lion on a glazed brick panel in Babylon     344

Lachish     346

Bronze dragon     346

The coming fiery day of Yahweh     348

Darius the Great on his throne     352

Persian winged cherub/griffin     355

Silver coins     358

Traditional site of Jesus’s trial and abuse     359

Statue of John the Baptist     360

Refiner’s fire     362

Wilderness of the Jordan     363

Ugarit     370

The Great Psalms Scroll     373

Shepherd following/watching over his sheep     376

The Banias Waterfall and River     377

Musicians playing tambourines and lyres     378

Musician     379

Moses     381

Sheep and shepherd at Mount Carmel     382

The Jabbok River     384

Tornado in the desert     388

Lightning     399

Pleiades     400

Leafcutter ant     404

Boundary stone     410

Fields like Boaz’s     416

Woman gathering grain     420

Ancient threshing floor     421

Wooden winnowing fan     422

Leather sandals     423

Pomegranate     426

En-gedi     428

Cedar of Lebanon     429

Middle Eastern field workers and animals     436

Relief of Xerxes I     448

Xerxes’s (Ahasuerus’s) throne hall     452

Persian royal harem building     453

Persian royal guard     454

Persian servant carrying a dish     455

The Ishtar Gate     458

Lion relief     461

Nabonidus Chronicle     468

Cyrus Cylinder     472

Hinged scribal writing boards     474

Scribal implements     475

Tomb of Artaxerxes I     478

Tomb of Cyrus the Great     478

Nehemiah’s wall     482

Silver rhyton with winged griffin protome     482

Samaritan coin     482

Ben Hinnom Valley     491

Beginning the Study

Introduction

For centuries Judaism and Christianity considered the Hebrew Scriptures a unified body of literature. They noted the books’ various historical settings and types of literature. However, they also recognized connected historical events, characters, and themes. From early times Christians called these books the Old Testament. They believed the Old Testament leads naturally into the New Testament. The key to this conclusion was their conviction that Jesus Christ is the Savior the Old Testament promised.

For the past two centuries, the Old Testament’s diversity has been stressed. For example, children are often taught that the Bible is not a single book but many books. Youth groups typically study only tiny bits of the Bible. University and seminary students are often taught to analyze individual passages and books in isolation from other Scripture. Therefore, many individuals have little sense of the Bible’s wholeness. Few people know how specific stories fit into the whole story.

This book emphasizes the Old Testament’s unity. It highlights characters, plot, structure, themes, and historical details that link the books. It focuses on the Old Testament’s contents so readers will know what happens in the text. Scholarly controversies play a secondary role. Once students grasp the Old Testament’s contents, they will be prepared for more advanced studies.

Approach

Every Old Testament survey has a guiding method. Some highlight major themes. Others focus on historical background. Some discuss the books in the order they appear in the English Bible. For Christians it should be logical to study the Hebrew Bible as the New Testament writers did.

Jesus and his disciples’ only Scripture was the Old Testament. They read or heard the same material found in current English Bibles. The New Testament writers believed God inspired the Old Testament’s writers (2 Pet 1:16–21). The Old Testament guided their beliefs and actions (2 Tim 3:16). Their Hebrew Bible was divided into three parts: Law, Prophets, and Writings (Matt 23:35; Luke 24:44). The Prophets divide into two sections, the Former Prophets and Latter Prophets. This book will use the same structure. Notice how the sequence of the books in the Hebrew Bible differs from the English Bible:

Hebrew Bible Book Order

Some key differences are evident. Ruth, Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1 and 2 Chronicles are not with the other historical works. Daniel is not among the Prophets. Lamentations is not with Jeremiah. Furthermore, 1 and 2 Samuel count as one book, as do 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, and the twelve minor prophets, which are together called the Book of the Twelve. The total contents are the same. What readers gain by following the Hebrew order of books is a greater sense of the unity of the Old Testament.

Following the Hebrew order of books displays their unity in several ways. First, the reader learns the basic events of Israel’s history from creation to the fall of Jerusalem in Genesis­–2 Kings. All succeeding books, therefore, have a historical context to which the reader can refer. Second, the student realizes that Joshua–Malachi interpret Israel’s history in a particular way. The Prophets present a united message. Third, the student observes how the Writings comment on how faithful persons lived in Israel’s various historical situations.

In other words, the Hebrew Bible’s sequence shows what happened to Israel and the world, why it happened, and how believers responded. When one surveys the Old Testament in this order, the ways history, theology, and faith work together in Scripture become clearer. New Testament authors interpreted the Old Testament in this unified manner.

Literary Aspects of the Study

No piece of literature, sacred or secular, can be understood unless readers know some of its basic details. Characters and plot are the starting points for all good literary analysis. Characters and plots also exist within specific historical settings. Themes and symbols add order and meaning to story lines. Different types of literature operate in different ways. Some basic knowledge of these aspects of the Old Testament will aid beginning students.

Characterization

Analyzing characters means more than noting who appears in a story or poem. Once characters have been identified, the reader needs to determine more about them. Is the character positive or negative? Does the character make a minor or a major impact on what happens? What are the character’s motives? What do other characters say about the individual in question? Do the character’s actions and words agree? Asking these and other questions about Old Testament figures helps guide the reader’s perception of the significance of each individual character. Normally, the characters who impact the plot the most are the most significant in the story.

Plot

Plot involves what happens in a story and why. Good plots are formed by characters’ actions, ideas, and conflicts. Good plots are ordered logically. Events alone do not make a plot. Rather, motives and explanations determine plot. For example, the Israelites leaving Egypt (Exodus 1) tells a story, but God setting them free reveals a plot. Plots always have a climax—usually a speech or event—that is the author’s central idea or teaching point to instruct the reader.

Plots are usually comic or tragic. Tragic stories begin hopefully but end sadly. For example, Israel’s failure to enter the Promised Land (Numbers 13–19) is a tragic account. Comic plots are not necessarily funny or satirical. When literary scholars say a plot is comic, they mean the story has a positive ending. All may seem negative in the middle of the story, but problems are resolved by the plot’s end. David’s rise to Israel’s throne despite Saul’s hatred (1 Samuel 16–2 Samuel 4) represents a comic plot. Realizing whether a plot is comic or tragic is vital to understanding Old Testament stories.

Themes and Theology

Locating themes in literature helps readers understand the purpose behind characters and plots. Why certain accounts appear in Scripture can often be explained by a book’s overall theme. For example, the major theme of Judges is, In those days there was no king in Israel. Everyone did what was right in his own eyes (Judg 17:6; 21:25

ESV

). Therefore, the author includes many occurrences that may shock or repulse readers.

Many students dread the word theology. Studying theology can become complicated. However, at its most basic level theology identifies and studies great Bible themes related to God and human beings. When readers begin to locate major themes in the Old Testament, they are doing basic theology. For example, seeing that Isaiah stresses salvation is a first step toward defining salvation in the Old Testament.

Symbols

Symbols are images, words, or phrases that represent something beyond themselves. Symbols point to deeper or broader meaning or reality. The temple represents God’s presence among Israel. Ezekiel uses a vision of dry bones (Ezek 37:1–14) to illustrate Israel’s renewal. Hosea’s wife, Gomer, is unfaithful to him. Hosea then claims that Israel is just as unfaithful to God (Hosea 1–3). Symbols bring themes to life. They challenge readers to envision and think about a message.

Prose

Prose is action-oriented. It presents events and the importance of those events. It gets to the heart of things. Books that have a fixed starting and stopping place, like Samuel and Kings, are best served by prose since they relate specific actions and events.

Prose proceeds logically, usually sequentially. Whether a text describes the life of an individual, tribe, or nation, prose has a beginning, middle, and end. The author may comment on why events happen but always bases those comments on the story itself. Each story has unique elements that make it creative and artistic.

Poetry

Each major section (Law, Prophets, or Writings) of the Old Testament contains poetry. The Prophets and the Writings use poetry the most. Old Testament poets write sermons, songs, visions, complaints, and predictions. Hebrew poetry is flexible.

Hebrew poetry rarely uses rhyme. Stanzas are not immediately apparent in many printed Bibles. Hebrew poetry’s rhythm does not always follow a set pattern. This separates it from much traditional Greek, Roman, Italian, and English poetry. Old Testament poetry has its own pattern, however, and uses imagery, word play, and other poetic devices.

Old Testament poets shape their works through thought and sense patterns. Hebrew poetry matches parallel ideas in consecutive lines. Two lines may say basically the same or almost opposite things. Several lines often work together to present an image or message. At least three types of poetry appear in the Old Testament: synonymous, antithetical, and synthetic.¹

In synonymous poetry two successive lines say practically the same thing, as in Ps 3:1:

O

Lord

, how many are my foes!

Many are rising against me! (

ESV

)

Together the two lines drive home the writer’s desperate situation.

Proverbs 19:4 illustrates antithetical poetry, in which two successive lines state opposite ideas:

Wealth brings many new friends,

but a poor man is deserted by his friend. (

ESV

)

Even though the phrases are opposites, they both show the relative importance of wealth.

Since synthetic poetry normally uses many lines, an example will not be quoted. Passages like Zeph 1:14–16; Joel 1:1–20; and Ps 139:1–6 illustrate that type of poetry. A succession of lines, images, and themes shape these poems.

Like all other nations’ poetry, Hebrew verse is reflective. Presentation of specific events gives way to creative statements about those events. For instance, 2 Kings 24–25 describes the fall of Jerusalem, while the book of Lamentations provides a heartrending rhythmic response to that catastrophe.

Poetry will be discussed later in the book, so it is not necessary to master all its aspects now. Still, poetry appears as early as Genesis, so some understanding of its principles will help the beginning reader immediately. Appreciation of both prose and poetry will grow as the perceptive student encounters both in the Old Testament.

Historical Aspects of the Study

²

Though this book focuses on literary content, it includes historical matters. After all, much of the Old Testament’s plot grows out of major historical events. Events like the exodus, the entering of the Promised Land, and the destruction of Jerusalem help shape whole series of books. Therefore, explanations of key dates, customs, and leaders will appear. Hopefully, readers will gain an appreciation for the way the Old Testament interacts with its rich ancient environment.

The oldest written texts currently known are from Egypt and Sumeria (see map on p. 16) and are dated c. 3100 BC. Both the Bible and scientific research indicate that people existed, used tools, hunted, raised animals, and farmed before 3100 BC. However, there are no texts older than this date. By comparison, Moses wrote the first books of the Bible as early as c. 1446 BC. He included materials related to human origins and Israel’s early history. Subsequent biblical writers carry the story forward another thousand years. The Old Testament contains some of the oldest and most organized treatments of human events known to exist.

The Bible is not technically a history book as we use the term today. However, its authors relate past events, actions, words, and facts accurately. They often cite ancient sources.³ It is important to realize that the Bible’s writers believe in God and his kind rule over creation. Some readers may wonder if the Bible can be accurate if its authors have this foundational conviction. In response, there is no such thing as a purely objective historian. All historical writing is based on the author’s foundational beliefs and methodological principles. No writer begins with a blank moral or interpretational slate when writing. This does not make them untrustworthy. Fair and careful readers examine and weigh evidence. They do not assume an author is unreliable.

Modern_Bedouin_living_an_ancient_pastoralist_lifestyle_tent

Bedouin tent and herd in Syria: Lifestyle of the Patriarchs.

Fair and careful writers are open about their methods. The authors of this textbook are Christians. We affirm the Bible’s full truthfulness (inerrancy) and reliability (infallibility). We have considered other alternatives to the viewpoints we express. After years of study, we have concluded that the Bible uses solid historical principles. We have found that there are good reasons to affirm what the Bible says on historical matters and that there are good reasons for using sound historical research when studying the Bible.

Many distinct people groups populated the lands the Old Testament mentions. Thus, many different languages, religions, morals, and customs flourished in those days. At the same time, physical proximity of neighbors combined with extensive trading by land and sea led to several similarities. These included language, religion, and legal customs. Israel lived among these groups and interacted with them for centuries. Despite these similarities, the differences are striking. Israelite religion, culture, and legal codes set them apart from their neighbors. The Old Testament’s authors used these similarities and differences when describing God’s relationship with Israel and with other nations.

Comparing these similarities and differences can help readers in two ways. First, noting the shared features sheds light on the Old Testament’s language, culture, and customs. Second, learning the distinctions highlights the Hebrews as a distinctive people called out and set apart for God. Both help bring the people and message of the Old Testament into focus. The Old Testament writers were flesh-and-blood people with a vital message for their times and for today.

Six major people groups had the most impact on the biblical history of the Hebrew people: the Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Canaanites, Arameans (Syrians), and Persians. These groups spread across the Fertile Crescent. This term refers to the crescent-shaped swath of agriculturally abundant land that stretches from Egypt north to Syria and south through Mesopotamia.

Assyria and Babylonia

The Assyrians and Babylonians predate Israelites by centuries. Their civilizations developed around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Babylonia was in the south and Assyria in the north (see map on p. 43). This region sustained a vibrant agricultural economy. The governing political model was the city-state, in which a large city dominated the trade and political affairs of local populations in a region. Each city had its king and patron deity. This was a feudal system with the king granting lands to nobles for military support and service. The people were often like serfs owing fealty, taxes, and labor to the king for protection. Frequently, one ruler and city rose to prominence by defeating other cities.

ModernStatesAndTheAncientNearEast

Over time, waves of people migrated down to the river plains from the mountains of present-day Iran to the east and Turkey to the north. These people groups eventually took over the cities and mixed their forms of government, laws, language, and religion with those native to the region. The Babylonians displaced the Sumerians as rulers in this manner. The Assyrians repeated this process and ruled the Babylonians for several centuries.

Abraham (c. 2100–2000 BC) was a Semite, a descendant of Noah’s son Shem (Genesis 11). He probably spoke a dialect of Akkadian and/or early Aramaic. Akkadian was part of the Semitic language family and was therefore related to Hebrew. It was written in cuneiform on clay tablets. Cuneiform was a pictographic language (similar to modern Chinese) in which symbols stood for words, phonetic syllables, or grammatical markers. The Semitic Akkadian language borrowed the Sumerian cuneiform signs as its written form.

The Mesopotamian dialect of Akkadian in the south differed slightly from the northern dialect (in Assyria). However, the common Semitic language roots and the similar cuneiform writing enabled verbal and written communication across the whole Fertile Crescent. The Amarna letters, written by the city rulers of Palestine to the Egyptian pharaoh in c. 1390–1350 BC, show that Akkadian was the international language of diplomacy and trade at that time.

The Babylonians and Assyrians based their religious practices around reverence for a large family of gods. These gods were represented by images of them (idols). Marduk was the supreme god in Babylon. Asshur had that role in Assyria. These deities’ family members represented a portion of nature. For example, Sin was a moon god, Shamash was a sun god, and Ishtar was goddess of the planet Venus. The names sometimes differed among different people groups, but the worship and attributes of deities remained similar (as in the Greek and Roman myths). The status of these idols changed through time with the rise of competing city-states that each had their own patron deity. The gods of the Babylonians, Assyrians, Canaanites, and Syrians may have reflected the administrative structure of the ruling class in both hierarchy and attributes.

Hebrew_men_being_flayed_at_Lachish

Assyrian relief of siege of Lachish: Hebrew captives flayed alive (left); others led away (right).

The gods interacted in a manner similar to the ancient city-state political structure. There were four levels of gods. Ruling gods were divided into two levels. The supreme deity, on the first level, represented the king. The other powerful deities, on the second level, represented the nobility. These gods were considered autonomous, impetuous, fickle, and fallible. The third level was made up of craftsmen gods who were proficient and always did their task well. The messenger gods made up the fourth level; they were sent on tasks and brought messages.⁴

Ashurbanipal_at_Nineveh

Relief from palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh: Assyrian soldiers torture captives.

Religious ceremonies included seeking omens, offering sacrifices, and engaging in cultic prostitution to enhance fertility. Prayers and sacrifices were offered in temples and on elevated sites the Bible calls high places. A family would set up idols in a shrine in their home, burning incense before them. The events on earth were seen as mirroring what happened in the heavens.

The people often lived in mud-brick houses on their land or in a city. Cities were built around a temple set in the center of town. When God called Abraham out of Ur of the Chaldees and subsequently from Haran, Abraham did not leave wilderness areas. He left urban population centers with advanced cultures.

Assyria and Babylon ruled most of the Old Testament world at particular times. Each conquered Canaan and Egypt. The Neo-Assyrian Empire dominated the ancient world c. 745–612 BC, but Assyria had waxed and waned as a regional power from c. 2300 BC. They conquered and took captives from the northern kingdom of Israel (732, 722, 701, and 670 BC) and from the southern kingdom of Judah (701 BC).⁵ Judah became a vassal of Assyria when Ahaz requested their help during the Syria-Israelite conflict in 734 BC. Their vassalage lasted until 612 BC. Babylon was the ancient world’s greatest power from c. 609–539 BC. Babylon conquered Judah and destroyed Jerusalem (c. 587 BC). Both biblical and extrabiblical sources narrate scenes of enslaved captivity, including 605, 597, 587, and 582 BC.

Egypt

Ancient Egypt was located along the banks of the Nile River. The Egyptians divided their land in two ways. They called the fertile land next to the Nile the Black Land. They called the desert waste away from the Nile the Red Land. They also called northern Egypt Lower Egypt, since it was downriver from the Nile’s source. They called southern Egypt Upper Egypt, because the Nile flowed downward from its source in the south. Egypt became a united nation about the same time as the Sumerian culture rose in Mesopotamia (about 3100 BC; see earlier).

Some key factors driving Egyptian culture’s development were as follows: (1) an isolated river valley with regular seasons of flooding that provided rich farmland; (2) a multitude of competing gods (who represented all of creation ranging from the Nile River skyward) who must be appeased for the mortal to have a happy afterlife; (3) the idea that anything written down or inscribed on stone became reality; and (4) the concept of Maat or divine order, which led the Egyptians to maintain the status quo. Due to its favorable geography, Egypt rarely faced foreign domination early in its history. The Red Land, or desert regions, insulated the fertile Nile valley to both the east and the west.

Canonical_pose_of_Pharaohs_Amenhotep_II

Amenhotep II in the canonical pose for Pharaoh, about to strike his captives with his missing upraised arm: from his Asiatic Campaign. A stele describing this campaign has the earliest Egyptian mention of the Canaanites.

The Egyptians believed that if they were not buried in the proper way in their homeland they had no hope of an afterlife. This belief could have significantly affected their army’s attacks on foreign soil. Egypt had a prosperous agricultural economy built on cheap labor and slavery. The pharaohs (kings) occasionally invaded neighboring regions (e.g., Canaan, Syria) to extort tribute payments. Many ancient Egyptian buildings from this time, such as the pyramid of Djoser (c. 2630 BC) to the pyramid of Taharqa (c. 664 BC), are still standing.

Ancient Egyptian language is known only from written sources, and then only in part. It was written in hieroglyphic symbols, pictures that stand for either an object, word, phonetic syllable, or word class. Egyptian was a pictographic language like Akkadian (see p. 10). Words written on tomb walls and execration texts (burial spells and incantations to help one in the afterlife) were considered able to create reality. An execration text listed all the bad things that the deceased had not done. Even if guilty of these, the deceased would intend to read these after death so that the person would be found guiltless when weighed on the scales of judgment.

The status of Egyptian gods changed over time, depending on the city, dynasty, and region from which the ruling pharaoh came. These gods numbered in the thousands, but some of the chief gods were Amun, Ra, Isis, Osiris, Hathor, Set, Khonsu, and Ma’at. Each ruling dynasty served a deity triad (father, mother, and son). The people worshipped the pharaoh as the representation of the sun god (Ra) on earth. Pharaoh had supreme power over the people, but both his internal rule and foreign policy were based upon his whims. Over time the priests and temples of the Amun-Ra cult became extremely influential over the pharaohs—to the point that pharaoh Akhenaton (ca. 1350 BC) initiated a failed religious reform to change from worship of Amun (the sun) to Aton (the sun disk).

Abraham, Jacob, Joseph and his brothers, and Moses (c. 2000–1440 BC) had contact with or lived in Egypt. Israel’s King Solomon (c. 970–930 BC) married an Egyptian princess, perhaps the daughter of Pharaoh Siamun. Egypt overran Israel more than once (926, 609 BC). Eventually Judah looked to Egypt for help against the Assyrians and Babylonians (see earlier). However, Egypt was never a good ally for Judah or Israel because Egypt was only interested in Judah/Israel as a buffer between them and the Assyrians/Babylonians.

Canaan

The Canaanites were the peoples living in the land God promised to Abraham (Gen 12:1–9). They migrated to this region hundreds of years before Israel entered the land after Moses died. Due to limited space, we will group several ethnic people groups together.⁶ These people groups (Amorites, Phoenicians, Amalekites, Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, and Philistines) may be discussed in this manner because of their similarities in religious culture and for their adversarial relationship with the Hebrews (with the exception of the Phoenicians). While originally from outside Canaan, the Philistines fit in this group because they took on the culture and religion of the native Canaanites. Like the others, the Philistines opposed, and at times subjugated, Israel.

ModernPoliticalDivisionsofAncientPalestine

The Canaanites developed their agricultural and trade economies around the local city-state (see the discussion of Assyria and Babylon above). A larger city (e.g., Hazor) sometimes led a league of kings and cities that went out to battle together. Egypt dominated the Canaanites in the land of Canaan in the Middle to Late Bronze Periods (1800–1200 BC).

The Canaanite language was a branch of West Semitic close to biblical Hebrew. The people of Ugarit, north of Phoenicia, wrote in an alphabetic cuneiform script (one sign = one letter) that utilized twenty-two letters, the same number as the biblical Hebrew alphabet. The Phoenicians were likely responsible for the spread of the northwest Semitic alphabet across the Mediterranean due to their extensive shipping and trading ventures that took them as far as Carthage.

Canaanite religion did not differ greatly from that of Assyria and Babylonia. The Canaanites chiefly worshipped Baal as the god of rain and fertility. Baal’s female partner was Asherah, a fertility goddess. An Asherah was a wooden pole set up near altars to Baal to represent the goddess. Fertility rituals included sacred prostitution, and, in some places, child sacrifice. God warned the Israelites not to make alliances with the Canaanites and to stay away from Canaanite religion,⁷ but they failed to heed these warnings. As the Israelites interacted and intermarried with the Canaanites in the land, they began to practice idolatry alongside worship of their God. The Hebrew prophets denounced the cultic idolatry of the Canaanites. This same idolatry eventually caused Israel’s and Judah’s exile from the land (2 Kgs 17–25).

Aram (Syria)

The Arameans likely began as a tribe in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains in today’s northeastern Iran. The tribe spread from upper Mesopotamia into Babylonia. Abraham was from Aramean ancestry and was living in Ur in southern Mesopotamia (see earlier) when God told him to leave (Deut 26:5). The Arameans grew in number and split into many tribes speaking roughly the same Aramaic dialect, a West Semitic language similar to Hebrew. They formed small states in northern Mesopotamia that caused problems for the Assyrians. Their society was ruled by tribal chiefs. However, eventually these tribes aligned under one ruler and became a single nation of nomadic herdsmen. Hadad, the storm god, was their patron deity and was joined by a large family of gods. Each city and tribe had its own significant deities as well. They viewed their idol-gods as regional deities and worshipped at local high places (see earlier).

InternationalRoutes

The Aramean state of Syria came to power in Damascus during the ninth century BC. The Arameans and the northern kingdom of Israel were sometime allies, trading partners, or rivals. The balance of power between the two kingdoms flowed back and forth during the ninth and eighth centuries BC. In 853 BC, Ahab of Israel joined a coalition of twelve armies with Aram to fight the Assyrian army at the battle of Qarqar.⁸ The coalition forces were victorious, but Hadad, king of Aram, eventually turned against Ahab of Israel. Ahab and Hadad fought several wars. Conflict continued when Hazael usurped the throne of Aram in 842 BC. Hazael oppressed Israel and Judah and managed to check threats by Assyria. Hazael also invaded south, conquering the Philistine city of Gath. At that time, Jehoash, king of Judah, bribed him to spare Jerusalem (2 Kgs 12:17–18). Between c. 737–735 BC, King Rezin of Aram formed a coalition with the kings of Tyre and Israel to fight Assyria, and tried to coerce Ahaz, king of Judah, into joining them. When he declined, they plotted to depose and replace him, and so end the Davidic line of kings. Ahaz appealed for aid from Assyria, which in turn conquered Aram and Israel (2 Kgs 16:1–16).

Statue_of_an_Aramean_king

Basalt statue of an Aramean king, from the late Hittite period: ninth century BC.

Aramaic was the language of Aram, though they adopted the Phoenician alphabet around 1100 BC. When Assyria conquered Damascus, the victors recognized the value of communicating in the Aramaic alphabetic language. Thus, the Assyrian Empire (c. 745–612 BC) adopted Aramaic as the official language of diplomacy and communication. The Babylonian (609–539 BC) and Persian Empires (539–536 BC) continued this practice. Thus, by the time of Ezra’s and Nehemiah’s returns to Judea (c. 458; 445 BC), the language of Aramaic was in widespread use in royal and diplomatic communication. It was to remain the common international language until the rise of the Greek Empire during the time of Alexander the Great (c. 336–323 BC). Parts of the Old Testament books of Daniel and Ezra were written in Aramaic, perhaps due to the importance of Aramaic language during the exile.

Persia

Persia displaced Babylon as the world’s great power (c. 539–336 BC). King Cyrus II (c. 550–530 BC), the son of a Persian and a Mede, united the Persians and Medes by defeating his Median grandfather Astyages in 550 BC. His forces conquered Babylon in 539 BC. The Persian Empire thus began in what is now western Iran. It eventually spread to all of western Asia and Egypt (see map on p. 449). The Persians believed in many gods but worshipped their patron god, Ahuramazda, as supreme deity. The prophet Zoroaster popularized his version of this religion (Zoroastrianism) around the time of the rise of Cyrus II.

The Persians had a different governing strategy than that of Assyria and Babylon. Inheriting many battered cities, they sought to encourage rebuilding efforts with a view to increasing revenues and appeasing conquered peoples and their idols/gods. Cyrus II’s decree, the text of which appears in Ezra 1:1–4a, allowed exiled Israelites to return to their homelands and rebuild the temple beginning in 538–535 BC. For a variety of reasons, which included economic prosperity, most Hebrews did not return from exile. Those who did received favorable treatment from later Persian kings: Darius I (522–486 BC) reaffirmed Cyrus’s command to rebuild the temple; Xerxes (487–465 BC), likely Esther’s husband; and Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC) decreed the rebuilding of Jerusalem. Old Persian became the official language, but Elamite, Akkadian, and Aramaic were still used.

Conclusion

No survey can cover every important aspect of the Old Testament. The greatness of the subject makes that attempt impossible. Hopefully this study can provide a basic grasp of the Old Testament that will lead readers to further analysis and greater insight. Most importantly, if learning the basics of the Old Testament helps the reader to enjoy the text, a lifelong love for the Bible may result.

Major Events in Old Testament History

⁹