One Health Meets the Exposome: Human, Wildlife, and Ecosystem Health

By Mary Ann Ottinger and Cullen Geiselman

One Health Meets the Exposome: Human, Wildlife, and Ecosystem Health brings together the two powerful conceptual frameworks of One Health and the Exposome to comprehensively examine the myriad of biological, environmental, social, and cultural challenges impacting the interrelated health of humans, wildlife, and ecosystems.

One Health as an encompassing concept and collaborative framework recognizes the interconnections among humans, wildlife, and our shared environment with the goal of optimizing health outcomes for all. The Exposome is more specifically oriented to human health and considers cumulative environmental exposures affecting individuals, communities, and populations. This book will provide the broadened and integrative view that considers a more holistic approach needed to confront the complex issues facing us today.

One Health Meets the Exposome: Human, Wildlife, and Ecosystem Health is a valuable and cutting-edge resource for researchers and practitioners in medicine, public health, animal science, wildlife and field biology, and for any reader looking to better understand the relationships among human health and the environment.

• Examines One Health historical focus on disease transfer from wildlife to humans
• Analyzes the transition of the One Health concept to a current multi- and trans-disciplinary framework with global programs aimed at optimizing human, and wildlife health
• Defines the Exposome and current approaches to conceptualize environmental impacts on human health
• Bridges the concepts of One Health and the Exposome by comparing, contrasting, and visualizing synergistic and integrative conceptual frameworks

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Mar 26, 2023
• ISBN: 9780323885973

Mary Ann Ottinger

Dr. Mary Ann Ottinger is a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Biology and Biochemistry at the University of Houston in Houston, Texas in the United States. Previously, she was Professor in the Department Animal and Avian Sciences at University of Maryland, College Park. Dr. Ottinger received her PhD in Behavioral Neuroendocrinology from the University of Maryland. Her research incorporates interdisciplinary and comparative biology approaches to understand the impacts of environmental chemicals, especially endocrine disruptors (EDCs) on the development of endocrine and behavioral components of reproduction, neuroendocrine system function, and the comparative biology of aging. Her studies have focused on a spectrum of species, ranging from birds to non-human primates, providing expertise in translational studies across model systems.

Book preview

One Health Meets the Exposome

Human, Wildlife, and Ecosystem Health

Mary Ann Ottinger

Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States

Cullen Geiselman

The Cullen Trust for Health Care, Houston, TX, United States

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1. Introduction

Humanity in context

Global challenges

Defining the conceptual framworks

Comparing the two concepts through the literature

Chapter 2. Human Health

Humans: history, distribution, and demographics

Overview of One Health and the Exposome

Ingredients necessary for human health

Global challenges to human health

Conclusions

Chapter 3. Domestic Animal Health

Domestic animals: history, distribtion, and role in human communities

Overview of One Health and the Exposome

Ingredients necessary for animal health

Global challenges to domestic animal health

Conclusions

Chapter 4. Wildlife Health

Wildlife: diversity, distribution, history, and health

Overview of One Health and the Exposome

Ingredients necessary for wildlife health

Global challenges to wildlife health

Conclusions

Chapter 5. Ecosystem Health on a Global Scale

Ecosystems: diversity, distribution, health, and management

Overview of One Health and the Exposome

Ingredients necessary for ecosystem health

Global challenges to ecosystem health

Conclusions

Chapter 6. Case Studies: One Health and the Exposome at Work

Case study #1: United States Agency for International Development’s Emerging Pandemic Threats program

Case study #2: Deepwater Horizon oil spill

Case study #3: Smoke, from indoor cooking fires to tobacco use

Conclusions

Chapter 7. Bridging the Exposome and One Health Conceptual Frameworks to Achieve Global One Health and Reduce Exposome Load

Effects of global challenges on ingredients necessary for health

Take aways from previous chapters

Review of the two frameworks

Intersections of existing frameworks with One Health and the Exposome

One Health and Exposome frameworks address different challenges

Utility of One Health and Exposome frameworks to address global challenges

A cohesive conceptual framework requires both One Health and the Exposome

Index

Appendix 1

Copyright

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom

525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-323-89873-7

For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Nikki P. Levy

Acquisitions Editor: Anna Valutkevich

Editorial Project Manager: Andrea R. Dulberger

Production Project Manager: Kiruthika Govindaraju

Cover Designer: Miles Hitchen

Cover Art: Nicole Ami Ray

Typeset by TNQ Technologies

Dedication

To our families and friends, their love of nature and the world. We could not have accomplished this journey without their love and support.

To my amazing husband, our awesome children and their spouses, and beautiful, talented grandchildren. Mary Ann

To my mother for being my teacher and companion in so many facets of our lives. Cullen

Preface

Our beautiful world is in jeopardy from multiple challenges including human population growth, pollution, land use change, sea level rise, climate change, and sharp declines in wild flora and fauna. These challenges are interconnected, so disruptive change in one is likely to alter another with rippling effects. This means that humanity must seek global solutions in a coordinated and constructive manner that transcends international, national, and regional boundaries. These solutions must consider culture and social drivers while recognizing the linkage of human, domestic animal, and wildlife health with their environment.

Myriad organizations, citizen groups, research centers, and consortia have put countless hours into describing issues and many have produced valuable insights and approaches to resolve specific challenges facing humanity. Because the dimensions and drivers of these global challenges are complex, it is often necessary to address pieces of an issue instead of its entirety. As global consortia and summits coalesce information and activities, long-term solutions are beginning to emerge, but often they are exceedingly difficult to implement. A coordinated approach is needed so that all parties communicate and move in synchrony while informing and engaging all constituents and stakeholders, including scientists, public officials, decision makers, educators, and the public. Accordingly, many essential pieces and cooperative programs are required to implement programs for restoring global ecosystems, sustaining human and wildlife populations, and improving the world as an interrelated entity.

The Opportunity

This book brings together two conceptual frameworks, One Health and the Exposome, to address these challenges within the context of human health in our global society and to provide approaches toward achieving solutions. Although many conceptual frameworks exist, they often have been created for a specific purpose, such as assessing risk from pollutants or the global decline in wildlife. The One Health and the Exposome conceptual frameworks both offer structured approaches to addressing issues that follow a logical path of recognition, characterization, and implementation. These two frameworks have additional attributes making them applicable across a range of global challenges.

The foundational basis for One Health can be found throughout human history in which the broadest definition describes humanity in delicate balance with nature and all aspects of our global environment. The concept incorporates humans, domestic animals, wildlife, ecosystems, and physical components of the global environment. One Health conceptualizes this interrelationship in a way that is both understandable and accessible to the public, ultimately creating a framework that characterizes the challenges as well as develops programmatic actions. The most recent usage of One Health has been in the context of disease transmission from wildlife to humans though it continues to broaden to encompass more aspects of the environment.

The Exposome concept emerged more recently and at its core recognizes the effects of environmental exposures on an individual human's health. It initially focused on environmental chemicals from a variety of sources, such as food and pollutants, and now also incorporates social and cultural environmental factors. This conceptual framework can be applied at any point in an individual's lifetime. Its practitioners make use of rich datasets linking biomarkers of exposure and characteristics of an individual's Exposome that could affect healthy aging as well as onset of diseases known to be associated with exposure to environmental chemicals and other factors.

The One Health and Exposome conceptual frameworks each has strengths and weaknesses. As mentioned above, the One Health concept has been successfully utilized worldwide to address local, regional, and national issues. It is a concept that considers relatively high-level interactions and interrelationships among human, domestic animal, and wildlife populations that affect the health of all. Furthermore, the health and sustainability of ecosystems depend on these interactions and the health of all components. In contrast, the Exposome focuses on individual humans and characterizing biomarkers of exposure and health over the lifespan. The sharp increase in the number of publications and the conversation around both these conceptual frameworks, discussed in detail in Chapter 1 with an accompanying reference list (see online appendix), reveals their growing adoption.

However, an opportunity seems to be lost in that the merits of these two lines of thought run in parallel and have not yet benefited from cross-fertilization. Practitioners and advocates of One Health and the Exposome generally do not interact meaning the attributes of one do not benefit the existing gaps of the other conceptual framework. Herein, we offer some solutions to both visualizing global challenges on an individual to global scale and directly comparing the views of each concept.

Our intended audience is all stakeholders ranging from scholars and practitioners to the public. Many figures are provided that are intended to visualize the concepts and points. The overall organization of this book is from introducing both concepts, their frameworks, and history to in-depth consideration of the health of humans, domestic animals, wildlife, and ecosystems. Case studies offer details of specific events and issues with discussion of how each of the concepts would produce both short- and long-term resolutions.

We have included a terminology for ease of describing and comparing the challenges facing humanity and all living beings. These ingredients are essential for health and sustainability of individuals and populations and are used to identify and link essential components for life to the challenges that compromise our health and life itself. Our goal is to provide a merged concept and framework that incorporates assets of both One Health and the Exposome as well as a unifying voice that will help link together nomenclature and understanding.

Acknowledgments

This book would not have been possible without our village of family, friends, and colleagues, who reviewed, discussed ideas, and provided valuable insights. Heartfelt thanks to Beth Robertson and Sarah Flournoy for reviewing the entire volume. Dr. Paul Ottinger read every chapter, often multiple times, and imparted his exceptional logic and clarity. We are grateful to Dr. Bryan Brooks for his candid feedback and synthetic view of the complexities that greatly helped us unify our ideas.

Thank you to many colleagues and friends that provided critical input to our proposal and to multiple chapters including Tasneem Bawa, Auriel Fournier, Andrew Geller, Jeffrey Gleason, Jean Harry, Emma Lavoie, Martin Nunez, Katey Pelican, Catherine Propper, Stephen Spann, Lani Wheeler, and Diane Wiernasz. Special thanks to Gabriela Chaverria, Deborah January-Bevers, Sue Lamont, Kristen Malecki, Shailaja Mani, Claudia Neuhauser, Heather Patisaul, Tom Porter, Amy Sater, and Ralph Stahl for essential discussions about the complex topics that we were attempting to wrangle and valuable advice.

The design and artwork in our volume could not have happened without talented artists. Megan Farias, our gifted design illustrator, was our partner throughout this process; we thank her for great patience and innovative solutions.

Nicole Ray, our creative and innovative artist, conceptualized and produced the cover artwork and the introductory facing image for each chapter that captured the essence of our ideas.

This work includes many graphs and figures from Our World in Data (https://ourworldindata.org/) that illustrate many of the global challenges addressed. This open access resource is invaluable for compiling and visualizing extensive datasets in a concise and understandable way.

We are grateful to the many consortia and organizations that have shared discussions, innovative concepts, and passion for the health of humankind, wildlife, and global ecosystems. Thankfully, they are too numerous to list and are a harbinger for optimism for the future of our planet.

Finally, a huge thank you to the SESYNC Team and especially to Drs. Andre Botha, William Bowerman, Brent Coverdale, Nicholus Funda, Meredith Gore, Reggie Harrell, Sonja Krüger, Humbu Mafumo, Jennifer Mullinax, Eric Reson, L. Jen Shaffer, Hanneline Smit-Robinson, Lindy Thompson, and Linda van den Heever. Their work with the endangered vultures of Africa is truly inspirational.

A special thanks to the Anna Valutkevich, Andrea Dulberger, Kiruthika Govindaraju, and many others at Elsevier Press for their time and efforts, and for working with us to problem solve throughout this journey.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Abstract

Recognizing the interconnected nature of the challenges faced by humanity in the 21st century is essential for implementing solutions that move global society forward in a mutually constructive and cohesive manner. The dimensions and drivers of these challenges are complex making long-term solutions difficult to implement. This book brings together the One Health and The Exposome concepts to address these challenges within the context of human health in our global society and to provide approaches toward achieving solutions. The frameworks are complementary, albeit starting from different perspectives, timing, and scales, and it is a merger of these two concepts that provide an encompassing framework leading to local and regional interventions. This chapter presents an in-depth view of these conceptual frameworks by (1) reviewing the foundational work that underpin each, (2) discussing overlaps and differing perspectives, (3) considering existing gaps in our knowledge and needs, and (4) proposing a merged concept.

Keywords

Anthropogenic changes; Ecosystem health; Exposome; Exposomics; Global challenges; Human health; Human–wildlife conflict; One Health; Wildlife health

Recognizing the interconnected nature of the challenges faced by humanity in the 21st century is essential for implementing solutions that move global society forward in a mutually constructive and cohesive manner. To effectively resolve the globe's most prickly issues, it is important to first identify and articulate their dimensions as well as understand their drivers, modulators, and triggers. This volume brings together two current conceptual frameworks, One Health and the Exposome, to address these challenges within the context of human health in our global society and provide approaches toward achieving solutions. These frameworks are complementary, albeit starting from different perspectives, timings, and scales. Ultimately, it is a merger of these two concepts that will provide the most encompassing framework to realize local and regional solutions. Once enacted, these solutions can be implemented on larger scales to enable communities and society as a whole to successfully tackle incredibly complex and challenging issues.

This volume presents an in-depth view of these conceptual frameworks, by (1) providing a review of the foundational work that underpin each, (2) pointing out overlapping as well as differing perspectives, (3) considering existing gaps in our knowledge and needs, and (4) proposing scenarios that could effectively merge the best of both. Accordingly, the introduction in this chapter explains each of the concepts, their origins, and scope and specifics about the One Health and Exposome conceptual frameworks. The next four chapters go into detail about the threat of global challenges to health, examining their effects on essential ingredients needed for health in each of the major realms (human health-Chapter 2, domestic animal health-Chapter 3, wildlife health-Chapter 4, and ecosystem health-Chapter 5). In Chapter 6, three case studies are presented to examine if/how One Health and/or the Exposome conceptual frameworks are reflected in actions taken to resolve the threat. Each case illustrates a significant challenge to humans, wildlife, and ecosystem health on global or regional scales. The final chapter (Chapter 7) coalesces what we have learned throughout the chapters and evaluates the utility of these conceptual frameworks to effectively grapple with today's complex challenges, alone and as a merged framework that integrates the best of both.

The content of each chapter is based on findings from the peer-reviewed published literature that provides the science needed to understand the interrelated nature of humankind to our environment. This approach achieves a primary objective of providing consumable and useful information for a general audience, with additional material available to those who wish to examine pertinent scientific evidence and datasets. There are diagrams and supporting examples throughout the chapters to help visualize the information and perspectives for the two conceptual frameworks. Resources and references are provided at the end of each chapter containing topical literature and pertinent supporting information. The scientific method, contributions from new technologies, metadata, and big data provide the inputs necessary for these frameworks to deliver accurate solutions that inform policy makers, the public and to combat misinformation. Making scientific findings understandable reinforces the critical roles of science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) and the arts (STEAM) for our young people as they learn about and appreciate our world. Accessible science also informs more general audiences about how evidence-based decisions can improve their lives and is critically needed to bring together diverse communities to address global challenges.

Humanity in context

Since the inception of our species, humans have altered their environments in ways that serve their current needs. Prior to the industrial revolution (1760–1820), the positive and negative effects of most of these modifications were felt locally or regionally. However, today, our anthropogenic activities impact all corners of the earth. Fig. 1.1 provides a way to visualize where humans and their activities fit into this global context in a way that can be used at local, regional, or global levels.

As depicted in Fig. 1.1, all humans, no matter where they reside on Earth, live within one or more ecosystems in our shared biosphere. Within these ecosystems, humans have created pockets of human-dominated built environments that we share with domestic animals and plants as well as wildlife. Throughout this volume, realms denote the different spaces occupied by humans, domestic species (Zeder, 2015; animals bred and adapted to human needs), wildlife (nondomesticated animals), and ecosystems (see Chapters 2–5 for definitions and detailed information). Humans, wildlife, and domestic species may also reside outside of the human-built environment. Recognizing these interconnected realms will be helpful when considering the origins and solutions to some of our greatest global challenges. Fig. 1.2 shows some of the many pathways and examples of how activities and elements of one realm spillover, interact with, and affect factors in other realms. Examples include the movement of diseases from wildlife to domestic animals and then further to people, disruptive effects of habitat fragmentation from road building and highways on wildlife populations, movement of invasive species through transport of goods internationally, migratory birds carrying pathogens to domestic counterparts, and pollution of waterways from agricultural or industrial chemicals. There are many situations, including the COVID-19 pandemic, that illustrate the transmission of infectious disease from wildlife to humans as well as the risk of wildlife exposure to human pathogens. The anthropogenic influences of humanity have led to a plethora of effects on wildlife and humans, not the least of which is the movement of invasive species, with resulting changes in the distribution of native versus potentially aggressive nonindigenous species moving into an ecosystem. Moreover, the impacts of pollutants and varied environmental chemicals modify the resilience of human, wildlife, and ecosystems. These interactions are nonlinear and dynamic resulting in positive and negative feedback loops that must be considered when addressing the origins and solutions to our greatest global challenges.

Figure 1.1  Interconnecting realms showing our shared world with humans, domestic species, and wildlife, both within and outside of the built environment, all within and affected by and having effects on the larger ecosystem.

Figure 1.2  Conceptual map of interconnection between humans-domestic species-wildlife and the global ecosystem. The example shows how deforestation exacerbates disease spillover from wildlife to domestic animals and to people.

Global challenges

The interconnected world in which we live requires that we have coordinated approaches to achieve long-term solutions to complex problems like emerging infectious disease such as COVID-19, extreme weather events and other negative outcomes of climate change, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem function, pollution, expanding wealth inequality, and the impacts of all of these on human health. Selected major pressures on human communities and the ecosystems they rely upon are discussed below; these pressures are felt worldwide with varying degrees according to geolocation, population, industrialization, and other factors.

Human population growth, resource use, and migration

The human population has grown exponentially in the last 100 years from about 2.6 billion in 1950 to 6 billion in 1999 with an estimated 9.7 billion projected for 2050 (Fig. 1.3). However, human population is not evenly distributed throughout the world. As shown in Fig. 1.4, the current highest population in terms of sheer numbers is in Asia, with lower percentages of the global population in Africa, Europe, South America, and North America. The largest proportion of future population growth, however, is projected for sub-Saharan Africa, whereas European countries are projected to have decreasing population numbers through 2050 (Fig. 1.5).

Figure 1.3  Human population annual growth rate (purple) overlaid with world population (green) by year 1700–2100. From: Roser et al. (2013), revised 2019, Data based on HYDE, UN, and UN Population Division.

The differences in population growth rates and current population numbers must be considered within the backdrop of the inherent variability across the world in natural resources, climate, terrain, culture, and geopolitical and governmental system that dictate how populations can meet their growing needs. All humans have similar basic requirements, including a safe environment, housing, nutrition, employment, and basic resources, and, when these are limited, people will move to meet their needs. Often migration occurs locally, specifically from rural to urban areas. However, these movements can spill across political borders and over oceans. For example, the first 20 years of the 21st century saw mass migrations of people out of North Africa and the Middle East to Europe to seek resources and improve their quality of life.

Human health and its determinants

The rapid increase in the human population, mass migration to urban centers, vast expansion of the built environment, and improvements in technology have resulted in substantial changes to the various drivers affecting the health of individuals and their communities. For example, in the United States, the leading causes of disease and death in 1900 were infectious diseases, trauma, cancer, and organ failure, whereas in the 21st century, these have been replaced by heart disease, diabetes, and stroke (Jones et al., 2012). Health as defined by the World Health Organization is the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. As shown in Fig. 1.6, the primary determinants of a person's health are their physical environment, genetics and biology, behavior/lifestyle, access to medical care, and social and economic circumstances. All these determinants vary based on an individual's location within the interconnected realms shown in Fig. 1.1 (e.g., rural vs. urban, living in proximity to livestock or wildlife vs. proximity to industrial plant).

Figure 1.4  Human population by region from 1820 to 2021 showing the large increase in the numbers of people in Asia compared to the rest of the world. From: Roser et al. (2013); revised 2019, Source data from Gapminder (V6), HYDE (v3.2), UN 2019.

Figure 1.5  Population growth rate across the world shows areas of rapid increase and others that have no growth or negative growth. From: Roser et al. (2013), revised 2019, Source, UN Population Division, 2019.

Biodiversity loss and land use change

Among the most catastrophic outcomes from the interrelated and dynamic changes to our planet is the loss of biodiversity, which includes all forms of life from animals and plants to fungi and microorganisms. The underlying causes are complex, and many are linked to anthropogenic impacts, such as overharvesting, deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and pollution, over the past few centuries with many of these impacts accelerating since 1900. For example, one third of the earth's forests have been felled since the last ice age as half of the world's habitable land has been converted to agriculture (Fig. 1.7).

Figure 1.6  Determinants of health for individuals in the 21st century, including personal, social, and environmental health determinants. Percentages show average contribution of personal (sex, age, genetics) and social determinants to a person's health. Social determinants are set within the environment, which has its own health determinants, including local climatic conditions, water and air quality, and pollution of various kinds. Some determinants are inherent to the person (personal) and are thus proximate factors, while others are further removed and can vary depending on a person's external conditions, referred to as intermediate and distal factors.

The loss of habitat and impacts of land use change have resulted in declines in biodiversity not only in terms of decreasing numbers of individuals per species but also the complete extinction of species. As shown in Fig. 1.8, the Living Planet Index, which calculates the average rate of population change among vertebrate groups, estimates a 68% decline in wildlife populations since 1970. In terms of loss of species, researchers have determined that recent extinction rates are 100 to 1000 times higher than the natural background rate (Fig. 1.9; Pimm et al., 2014). These losses directly and indirectly affect humans through damage to ecosystem function resulting in reduced ecosystem services. Diminished biodiversity affects not only the viability of species but also the food web. Ultimately, the lack of a full complement of species in ecosystems leads to declining ecosystem resiliency and productivity, consequently impairing current and future generations to meet their needs.

Figure 1.7  The loss of forests and grasslands since the last ice age reflects the conversion of land to agricultural use with the accompanying dramatic loss in forests, wild grasslands, and shrubs. From Ritchie and Roser (2019); Data from UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Williams 2003; History Database of the Global Environment.

Figure 1.8  Global Living Planet Index compiles abundance data of 20,000 populations of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish monitored since 1970. When considered together, there has been a 68% average decline in these wildlife populations over the last 50 years.  Ritchie and Roser (2021); Data from World Wildlife Fund, 2020.

Climate change, ecosystem health, and sustainability

The ecosystems within which humans and all other living things exist are changing in sometimes chaotic and rapid ways due to climate change brought on by alterations to atmospheric composition, namely, the increase in greenhouse gases from fossil fuel use and land conversion. These changes are increasing the frequency of droughts, wildfires, and floods, causing sea level rise as polar ice melts, and resulting in species range extensions/contractions, among many other outcomes. As shown in Fig. 1.10, these changes can result in positive and negative feedback loops that can exacerbate and/or accelerate climate change and its effects. A prime example is the likelihood that wildfires and destruction of Amazonian forests in 2020, partially driven by climate change, not only released more carbon into the atmosphere but also may have affected atmospheric oxygen levels (Ellwanger et al., 2020).

Several notable concepts related to climate change will be emphasized throughout subsequent chapters, including: (1) underlying causes of climate change and geophysical outcomes; (2) complexity of feedback loops and interrelated factors that compound problems, such as greater frequency and intensity of weather events; (3) loss of ecosystem services; and (4) human health effects. In terms of human health, the immediate impacts of climate change include increased risks of heat stroke, infectious disease, allergies, asthma, and malnutrition. Climate change also affects how people can access the resources they need to sustain themselves now and into the future (Fig. 1.11). Beyond these direct impacts, climate change also exacerbates other environmental issues leading to a loss of ecosystem services, such as water filtration by naturally occurring ecosystem processes. Restoration and adaptive management can mitigate some of the damage associated with environmental pressures though most projects require substantial monetary investments for sustaining recovery and staff to implement effective, longer-term management programs.

Figure 1.9  Recent extinction rates compared to background across various vertebrates. The background rate is 0.1 extinctions per 1 million species per year, whereas the current extinction rates for well-studied vertebrates are 132, 183, and 587 per million per year for birds, mammals, and amphibians, respectively, since 1900. From Ritchie and Roser (2021); Data source Pimm et al. (2014).

Culture, society, science, and policy

Human interactions with domestic species, wildlife, and their environments are grounded in attitudes, values, cultural practices, and societal norms that have been shaped by history, economics, religious beliefs, and the environment itself. Some practices honor the interconnectedness of life on earth and the circularity of energy and nutrient flows, which inform their behaviors toward their environment and other species. Many of these recognize that actions in the present will affect the ability to pursue future endeavors. Others do not, waiting until it is too late to reverse negative feedback loops associated with overharvesting, resource extraction, land conversion, and pollution before they harm their own (or other/future) human communities. Lack of understanding of science and skepticism toward the scientific community hinders the development and incorporation of newer practices that have fewer deleterious effects on other species and ultimately humans.

Figure 1.10  Climate change feedback loops showing how rising temperatures accelerate the release of additional greenhouse gases or hamper their uptake by plants. From Climate Emergency Institute.

Nonetheless, humans appear to have innate fondness for the natural world (biophilia), and most societies have practiced some form of conservation, whether it is the establishment of protected areas or the collective agreement to conserve species, such as the enactment of the US Endangered Species Act. On a global scale, international treaties have attempted to tackle issues that transcend national boundaries, such as whaling, biodiversity loss, and climate change. These endeavors are not self-sacrifice but instead are in the long-term best interest of all human populations. Effective changes in policy used to direct future actions require (1) agreement on the existence of a problem and availability of solutions, (2) collaboration and willingness to make short-term sacrifices, and (3) ability to take collective action for the betterment of current and future generations. As noted earlier, this book does not focus on the role of policymaking to tackle these interconnected global challenges but instead outlines two frameworks that can inform courses of action that can be incorporated into policies and laws once they have been shown to be effective.

Figure 1.11  Climate change impacts on human health. Extreme weather, rising sea levels, increasing CO2 levels, and rising temperatures increase exposures to negative elements resulting in poor health outcomes. All are nested within the environmental, institutional, social, and behavioral contexts in which a person lives. Modeled after EPA: https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-07/8129_intr_pathwaysweb.png.

Defining the conceptual framworks

Two concepts have emerged as humanity attempts to tackle the negative outcomes to human and ecosystem health caused by these intertwining complex global challenges. Although numerous concepts and approaches exist, most are specifically focused on a very specific or restricted issue or task. For example, a chemical spill may happen in a sequestered area, which then may endanger living organisms. An EPA Risk Assessment (EPA/630/R-92/001, Norton et al., 1992) can provide actionable information for public safety and management of the affected area. This volume focuses on two concepts that share some characteristics and differ