Anxiety Disorders Sourcebook, 2nd Ed.

By Omnigraphics

Consumer health information about the ways people encounter anxiety and its various types, including general anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and panic disorder.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Omnigraphics
• Release date: Oct 1, 2020
• ISBN: 9780780818194

Book preview

Preface

ABOUT THIS BOOK

Concerns over finances, work, family, and the future are common sources of anxiety. In many cases individuals cope with such stressors and lead a healthy life. However, for others, worry becomes uncontrollable, taking a profound physical and mental toll. Prolonged anxiety can also lead to severe conditions such as depression, heart disease, and diabetes, and may also make an individual more vulnerable to substance abuse.

Anxiety Disorders Sourcebook, Second Edition provides an overview of anxiety disorders and highlights its potential risk factors. It discusses anxiety disorders in specific populations such as children, teens, pregnant women, older adults, and the LGBTQ community. It offers facts about the most common types of anxiety disorders including generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), separation anxiety disorder, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder (SAD), selective mutism, etc. Diagnosis and treatment of anxiety disorders are discussed in detail. The book provides information about psychiatric comorbidities in anxiety disorder such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder (BPD), depression, eating disorders, and so on. It explains how individuals can manage and cope with the symptoms of anxiety and lead productive lives. It talks about financial assistance and support available for people with mental-health problems. Information about several anxiety-related research activities are also provided. The book concludes with a glossary of terms related to anxiety disorders and directories of mental-health resources and organizations for people with anxiety disorders and other mental concerns.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

This book is divided into parts and chapters. Parts focus on broad areas of interest. Chapters are devoted to single topics within a part.

Part 1: Introduction to Mental-Health and Anxiety Disorders begins with an overview of mental health and mental illness. It dispels common myths and provides facts about mental health. It discusses anxiety disorders in general and highlights the potential risk factors for anxiety disorders. It provides statistical information on anxiety disorders and its incidence in specific populations.

Part 2: Types of Anxiety Disorders gives an overview of the most common types of anxiety disorders including generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), separation anxiety disorder, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder (SAD), selective mutism, panic disorders, agoraphobia, and substance- or medication-induced anxiety disorder.

Part 3: General Principles of Diagnosis and Treatment provides information about diagnosis of anxiety disorders. Therapies for alleviating anxiety disorders such as psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and medications have been included. Complementary health approaches including relaxation techniques, yoga, tai chi, qi gong, massage therapy, art and play therapy, etc. are also discussed. It highlights the importance of support groups and integrating behavioral health services into primary care.

Part 4: Psychiatric Comorbidities in Anxiety Disorder discusses the signs, symptoms, and treatment of chronic illnesses and conditions often linked to anxiety, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder, borderline personality disorder (BPD), depression, eating disorders, illness anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), somatic symptom disorder, substance-use disorder, and suicidal ideation.

Part 5: Lifestyle Modifications for Mental Health and Well-Being describes how one can manage and cope with the symptoms of anxiety. It discusses how diet and physical activity help in managing anxiety disorders and provides tips to cope with stress. There is also a special mention on how to manage anxiety and stress related to COVID-19.

Part 6: Looking Ahead highlights ways individuals with anxiety disorders can lead productive lives. It explains how family and peer support can help in recovery. It provides details about financial assistance and help available for people with mental-health problems. It also talks about accommodating employees with anxiety disorder and explains how to address stress-related concerns in the workplace.

Part 7: Research on Anxiety Disorders talks about the role of research in improving the understanding and treatment of anxiety disorders. It provides information about several anxiety-related clinical trials and research activities.

Part 8: Additional Help and Information provides a glossary of terms related to anxiety disorders and directories of mental-health resources and organizations for people with anxiety disorders and other mental concerns.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTE

This volume contains documents and excerpts from publications issued by the following U.S. government agencies: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); Federal Occupational Health (FOH); National Cancer Institute (NCI); National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH); National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (NCPTSD); National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH); National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA); National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA); National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) for Teens; National Institutes of Health (NIH); NIH News in Health; Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response (ASPR); Office on Women’s Health (OWH); Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS); U.S. Department of Labor (DOL); U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA); U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC); and Youth.gov.

It may also contain original material produced by Omnigraphics and reviewed by medical consultants.

ABOUT THE HEALTH REFERENCE SERIES

The Health Reference Series is designed to provide basic medical information for patients, families, caregivers, and the general public. Each volume provides comprehensive coverage on a particular topic. This is especially important for people who may be dealing with a newly diagnosed disease or a chronic disorder in themselves or in a family member. People looking for preventive guidance, information about disease warning signs, medical statistics, and risk factors for health problems will also find answers to their questions in the Health Reference Series. The Series, however, is not intended to serve as a tool for diagnosing illness, in prescribing treatments, or as a substitute for the physician–patient relationship. All people concerned about medical symptoms or the possibility of disease are encouraged to seek professional care from an appropriate healthcare provider.

A NOTE ABOUT SPELLING AND STYLE

Health Reference Series editors use Stedman’s Medical Dictionary as an authority for questions related to the spelling of medical terms and The Chicago Manual of Style for questions related to grammatical structures, punctuation, and other editorial concerns. Consistent adherence is not always possible, however, because the individual volumes within the Series include many documents from a wide variety of different producers, and the editor’s primary goal is to present material from each source as accurately as is possible. This sometimes means that information in different chapters or sections may follow other guidelines and alternate spelling authorities. For example, occasionally a copyright holder may require that eponymous terms be shown in possessive forms (Crohn’s disease vs. Crohn disease) or that British spelling norms be retained (leukaemia vs. leukemia).

MEDICAL REVIEW

Omnigraphics contracts with a team of qualified, senior medical professionals who serve as medical consultants for the Health Reference Series. As necessary, medical consultants review reprinted and originally written material for currency and accuracy. Citations including the phrase Reviewed (month, year) indicate material reviewed by this team. Medical consultation services are provided to the Health Reference Series editors by:

Dr. Vijayalakshmi, MBBS, DGO, MD

Dr. Senthil Selvan, MBBS, DCH, MD

Dr. K. Sivanandham, MBBS, DCH, MS (Research), PhD

HEALTH REFERENCE SERIES UPDATE POLICY

The inaugural book in the Health Reference Series was the first edition of Cancer Sourcebook published in 1989. Since then, the Series has been enthusiastically received by librarians and in the medical community. In order to maintain the standard of providing high-quality health information for the layperson the editorial staff at Omnigraphics felt it was necessary to implement a policy of updating volumes when warranted.

Medical researchers have been making tremendous strides, and it is the purpose of the Health Reference Series to stay current with the most recent advances. Each decision to update a volume is made on an individual basis. Some of the considerations include how much new information is available and the feedback we receive from people who use the books. If there is a topic you would like to see added to the update list, or an area of medical concern you feel has not been adequately addressed, please write to:

Managing Editor

Health Reference Series

Omnigraphics

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Detroit, MI 48226

Part 1 | Introduction to Mental-Health and Anxiety Disorders

Chapter 1 | Introduction to Mental-Health Disorders

Chapter Contents

Section 1.1—What Is Mental Health?

Section 1.2—Mental-Health Myths and Facts

Section 1.1 | What Is Mental Health?

This section includes text excerpted from Learn about Mental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), January 26, 2018.

What Is Mental Illness?

Mental illnesses are conditions that affect a person’s thinking, feeling, mood, or behavior such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia. Such conditions may be occasional or long-lasting (chronic) and affect someone’s ability to relate to others and function each day.

What Is Mental Health?

Mental health includes a person’s emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how we think, feel, and act. It also helps determine how we handle stress, relate to others, and make healthy choices. Mental health is important at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood.

Although the terms are often used interchangeably, poor mental health and mental illness are not the same things. A person can experience poor mental health and not be diagnosed with a mental illness. Likewise, a person diagnosed with a mental illness can experience periods of physical, mental, and social well-being.

Why Is Mental Health Important for Overall Health?

Mental and physical health are equally important components of overall health. Mental illness, especially depression, increases the risk for many types of physical health problems, particularly long-lasting conditions such as stroke, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease. Similarly, the presence of chronic conditions can increase the risk of mental illness.

Can Your Mental Health Change Over Time?

Yes, it is important to remember that a person’s mental health can change over time, depending on many factors. When the demands placed on a person exceed their resources and coping abilities, their mental health could be impacted. For example, if someone is working long hours, caring for an ill relative, or experiencing economic hardship they may experience poor mental health.

How Common Are Mental Illnesses?

Mental illnesses are among the most common health conditions in the United States.

More than 50 percent are diagnosed with a mental illness or disorder at some point in their lifetime.

1 in 5 Americans will experience a mental illness in a given year.

1 in 5 children, either currently or at some point during their life, have had a seriously debilitating mental illness.

1 in 25 Americans lives with a serious mental illness such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depression.

What Causes Mental Illness

There is no single cause for mental illness. A number of factors can contribute to risk for mental illness, such as:

Early adverse life experiences, such as trauma or a history of abuse (e.g., child abuse, sexual assault, witnessing violence, etc.)

Experiences related to other ongoing (chronic) medical conditions, such as cancer or diabetes

Biological factors, such as genes or chemical imbalances in the brain

Use of alcohol or recreational drugs

Having few friends

Having a feeling of loneliness or isolation

Section 1.2 | Mental-Health Myths and Facts

This section includes text excerpted from Mental Health Myths and Facts, MentalHealth.gov, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), August 29, 2017.

Mental-Health Problems Affect Everyone

Myth: Mental-health problems do not affect me.

Fact: Mental-health problems are actually very common. In 2014, about:

One in 5 American adults experienced a mental-health issue

One in 10 young people experienced a period of major depression

One in 25 Americans lived with a serious mental illness such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depression

Suicide is the tenth leading cause of death in the United States. It accounts for the loss of more than 41,000 American lives each year, more than double the number of lives lost to homicide.

Myth: Children do not experience mental-health problems.

Fact: Even young children may show early warning signs of mental-health concerns. These mental-health problems are often clinically diagnosable and can be a product of the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.

Half of all mental-health disorders show first signs before a person turns 14 years of age, and three-quarters of mental-health disorders begin before 24 years of age.

Unfortunately, less than 20 percent of children and adolescents with diagnosable mental-health problems receive the treatment they need. Early mental-health support can help a child before problems interfere with other developmental needs.

Myth: People with mental-health problems are violent and unpredictable.

Fact: The vast majority of people with mental-health problems are no more likely to be violent than anyone else. Most people with mental illness are not violent and only 3 to 5 percent of violent acts can be attributed to individuals living with a serious mental illness. In fact, people with severe mental illnesses are over 10 times more likely to be victims of violent crime than the general population. You probably know someone with a mental-health problem and do not even realize it, because many people with mental-health problems are highly active and productive members of our communities.

Myth: People with mental-health needs, even those who are managing their mental illness, cannot tolerate the stress of holding down a job.

Fact: People with mental-health problems are just as productive as other employees. Employers who hire people with mental-health problems report good attendance and punctuality as well as motivation, good work, and job tenure on par with or greater than other employees.

When employees with mental-health problems receive effective treatment, it can result in:

Lower total medical costs

Increased productivity

Lower absenteeism

Decreased disability costs

Myth: Personality weakness or character flaws cause mental-health problems. People with mental-health problems can snap out of it if they try hard enough.

Fact: Mental-health problems have nothing to do with being lazy or weak and many people need help to get better. Many factors contribute to mental-health problems, including:

Biological factors such as genes, physical illness, injury, or brain chemistry

Life experiences, such as trauma or a history of abuse

Family history of mental-health problems

People with mental-health problems can get better and many recover completely.

Helping Individuals with Mental-Health Problems

Myth: There is no hope for people with mental-health problems. Once a friend or family member develops mental-health problems, she or he will never recover.

Fact: Studies show that people with mental-health problems get better and many recover completely. Recovery refers to the process in which people are able to live, work, learn, and participate fully in their communities. There are more treatments, services, and community support systems than ever before, and they work.

Myth: Therapy and self-help are a waste of time. Why bother when you can just take a pill?

Fact: Treatment for mental-health problems varies depending on the individual and could include medication, therapy, or both. Many individuals work with a support system during the healing and recovery process.

Myth: I cannot do anything for a person with a mental-health problem.

Fact: Friends and loved ones can make a big difference. Only 44 percent of adults with diagnosable mental-health problems and less than 20 percent of children and adolescents receive needed treatment. Friends and family can be important influences to help someone get the treatment and services they need by:

Reaching out and letting them know you are available to help

Helping them access mental-health services

Learning and sharing the facts about mental health, especially if you hear something that is not true

Treating them with respect, just as you would anyone else

Refusing to define them by their diagnosis or using labels, such as crazy

Myth: Prevention does not work. It is impossible to prevent mental illnesses.

Fact: Prevention of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders focuses on addressing known risk factors, such as exposure to trauma that can affect the chances that children, youth, and young adults will develop mental-health problems. Promoting the social and emotional well-being of children and youth leads to:

Higher overall productivity

Better educational outcomes

Lower crime rates

Stronger economies

Lower healthcare costs

Improved quality of life (QOL)

Increased lifespan

Improved family life

Chapter 2 | Understanding Anxiety Disorders

Many of us worry from time to time. We fret over finances, feel anxious about job interviews, or get nervous about social gatherings. These feelings can be normal or even helpful. They may give us a boost of energy or help us focus. But, for people with anxiety disorders, they can be overwhelming.

When Panic, Fear, and Worries Overwhelm

Anxiety disorders affect nearly 1 in 5 American adults each year. People with these disorders have feelings of fear and uncertainty that interfere with everyday activities and last for 6 months or more. Anxiety disorders can also raise your risk for other medical problems such as heart disease, diabetes, substance abuse, and depression.

The good news is that most anxiety disorders get better with therapy. The course of treatment depends on the type of anxiety disorder. Medications, psychotherapy (talk therapy), or a combination of both can usually relieve troubling symptoms.

Anxiety disorders are one of the most treatable mental-health problems we see, says Dr. Daniel Pine, a National Institutes of Health (NIH) neuroscientist and psychiatrist. Still, for reasons we do not fully understand, most people who have these problems do not get the treatments that could really help them.

One of the most common types of anxiety disorder is social anxiety disorder, also known as social phobia. It affects both women and men equally—a total of about 15 million U.S. adults. Without treatment, social phobia can last for years or even a lifetime. People with social phobia may worry for days or weeks before a social event. They are often embarrassed, self-conscious, and afraid of being judged. They find it hard to talk to others. They may blush, sweat, tremble, or feel sick to their stomach when around other people.

Other common types of anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), which affects nearly 7 million American adults, and panic disorder, which affects about 6 million. Both are twice as common in women as in men.

People with GAD worry endlessly over everyday issues—such as health, money, or family problems—even if they realize there is little cause for concern. They startle easily, cannot relax, and cannot concentrate. They find it hard to fall asleep or stay asleep. They may get headaches, muscle aches, or unexplained pains. Symptoms often get worse during times of stress.

People with panic disorder have sudden, repeated bouts of fear—called panic attacks—that last several minutes or more. During a panic attack, they may feel that they cannot breathe or that they are having a heart attack. They may fear the loss of control or feel a sense of unreality. Not everyone who has panic attacks will develop panic disorder. But, if the attacks recur without warning, creating fear of having another attack at any time, then it is likely a panic disorder.

Anxiety disorders tend to run in families. But, researchers are not certain why some family members develop these conditions while others do not. No specific genes have been found to actually cause an anxiety disorder. Many different factors—including genes, stress, and the environment—have small effects that add up in complex ways to affect a person’s risk for these disorders, Pine says.

Many kids with anxiety disorders will outgrow their conditions. But, most anxiety problems we see in adults started during their childhood, Pine adds.

Anxiety disorders are among the most common psychiatric disorders in children, with an estimated 1 in 3 suffering anxiety at some point during childhood or adolescence, says Dr. Susan Whitfield-Gabrieli, a brain imaging expert at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. About half of diagnosable mental-health disorders start by 14 years of age, so there is a lot of interest in uncovering the factors that might influence the brain by those early teen years.

Whitfield-Gabrieli is launching an NIH-funded study to create detailed magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images of the brains of more than 200 teens, 14 to 15 years of age, with and without anxiety or depression. The scientists will then assess what brain structures and activities might be linked to these conditions. The study is part of the NIH’s Human Connectome Project, in which research teams across the country are studying the complex brain connections that affect health and disease.

Whitfield-Gabrieli and colleagues have shown that analysis of brain connections might help predict which adults with social phobia will likely respond to cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT is a type of talk therapy known to be effective for people with anxiety disorders. It helps them change their thinking patterns and how they react to anxiety-provoking situations. But, it does not work for everyone.

Of 38 adults with social phobia, those who responded best after three months of CBT had similar patterns of brain connections. This brain analysis led to major improvement, compared to a clinician’s assessment alone, in predicting treatment response. Larger studies will be needed to confirm the benefits of the approach.

Ultimately, we hope that brain imaging will help us predict clinical outcomes and actually tailor the treatment to each individual—to know whether they will respond best to psychotherapy or to certain medications, Whitfield-Gabrieli says.

Other researches are focusing on our emotions and our ability to adjust them. We want to understand not only how emotions can help us but also how they can create difficulties if they are of the wrong intensity or the wrong type for a particular situation, says Dr. James Gross, a clinical psychologist at Stanford University.

We all use different strategies to adjust our emotions, often without thinking about it. If something makes you angry, you may try to tamp down your emotion to avoid making a scene. If something annoys you, you might try to ignore it, modify it, or entirely avoid it.

But, these strategies can turn harmful over time. For instance, people with social phobia might decide to avoid attending a professional conference so they can keep their anxiety in check. That makes them lose opportunities at work and miss chances to meet people and make friends.

Gross and others are examining the differences between how people with and without anxiety disorders regulate their emotions. We are finding that CBT is helpful in part because it teaches people to more effectively use emotion regulation strategies, Gross says. They then become more competent in their ability to use these strategies in their everyday lives.

It is important to be aware that many different kinds of treatments are available, and people with anxiety disorders tend to have very good responses to those treatments, Pine adds. The best way to start is often by talking with your physician. If you are a parent, talk with your child’s pediatrician. These health professionals are generally prepared to help identify such problems and help patients get the appropriate care they need, Pine says.

This chapter includes text excerpted from Understanding Anxiety Disorders: When Panic, Fear, and Worries Overwhelm, NIH News in Health, National Institutes of Health (NIH), March 2016. Reviewed August 2020.

Chapter 3 | Brain Circuits Involved in Fear and Anxiety Disorders

Mental disorders are common. You may have a friend, colleague, or relative with a mental disorder, or perhaps you have experienced one yourself at some point. Such disorders include depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and many others.

Some people who develop a mental illness may recover completely; others may have repeated episodes of illness with relatively stable periods in between. Still, others live with symptoms of mental illness every day. They can be moderate, or serious and cause severe disability.

Through research, it is known that mental disorders are brain disorders. Evidence shows that they can be related to changes in the anatomy, physiology, and chemistry of the nervous system. When the brain cannot effectively coordinate the billions of cells in the body, the results can affect many aspects of life. Scientists are continually learning more about how the brain grows and works in healthy people, and how normal brain development and function can go awry, leading to mental illnesses.

Inside the Brain: Neurons and Neural Circuits

Neurons are the basic working unit of the brain and nervous system. These cells are highly specialized for the function of conducting messages. A neuron has three basic parts:

Cell body, which includes the nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell organelles. The nucleus contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and information that the cell needs for growth, metabolism, and repair. The cytoplasm is the substance that fills a cell, including all the chemicals and parts needed for the cell to work properly including small structures called cell organelles.

Dendrites branch off from the cell body and act as a neuron’s point of contact for receiving chemical and electrical signals called impulses from neighboring neurons.

Axon, which sends impulses and extends from cell bodies to meet and deliver impulses to another nerve cell. Axons can range in length from a fraction of an inch to several feet.

Each neuron is enclosed by a cell membrane, which separates the inside contents of the cell from its surrounding environment and controls what enters and leaves the cell, and responds to signals from the environment; this all helps the cell maintain its balance with the environment.

Synapses are tiny gaps between neurons, where messages move from one neuron to another as chemical or electrical signals.

The brain begins as a small group of cells in the outer layer of a developing embryo. As the cells grow and differentiate, neurons travel from a central birthplace to their final destination. Chemical signals from other cells guide neurons in forming various brain structures. Neighboring neurons make connections with each other and with distant nerve cells (via axons) to form brain circuits. These circuits control specific body functions such as sleep and speech. The brain continues maturing well into a person’s early 20s. Knowing how the brain is wired and how the normal brain’s structure develops and matures helps scientists understand what goes wrong in mental illnesses.

Scientists have already begun to chart how the brain develops over time in healthy people and are working to compare that with brain development in people with mental disorders. Genes and environmental cues both help to direct this growth.

Neurotransmitters

Everything we do relies on neurons communicating with one another. Electrical impulses and chemical signals carrying messages across different parts of the brain and between the brain and the rest of the nervous system.

When a neuron is activated a small difference in electrical charge occurs. This unbalanced charge is called an action potential and is caused by the concentration of ions (atoms or molecules with unbalanced charges) across the cell membrane. The action potential travels very quickly along the axon, such as when a line of dominoes falls.

When the action potential reaches the end of an axon, most neurons release a chemical message (a neurotransmitter) that crosses the synapse and binds to receptors on the receiving neuron’s dendrites and starts the process over again. At the end of the line, a neurotransmitter may stimulate a different kind of cell (such as a gland cell) or may trigger a new chain of messages.

Neurotransmitters send chemical messages between neurons. Mental illnesses, such as depression, can occur when this process does not work correctly. Communication between neurons can also be electrical, such as in areas of the brain that control movement. When electrical signals are abnormal, they can cause tremors or symptoms found in Parkinson disease.

Serotonin—helps control many functions, such as mood, appetite, and sleep. Research shows that people with depression often have lower than normal levels of serotonin. The types of medications most commonly prescribed to treat depression act by blocking the recycling, or reuptake of serotonin by the sending neuron. As a result, more serotonin stays in the synapse for the receiving neuron to bind onto, leading to more normal mood functioning.

Dopamine—mainly involved in controlling movement and aiding the flow of information to the front of the brain, which is linked to thought and emotion. It is also linked to reward systems in the brain. Problems in producing dopamine can result in Parkinson disease, a disorder that affects a person’s ability to move as they want to, resulting in stiffness, tremors or shaking, and other symptoms. Some studies suggest that having too little dopamine or problems using dopamine in the thinking and feeling regions of the brain may play a role in disorders such as schizophrenia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Glutamate—the most common neurotransmitter, glutamate has many roles throughout the brain and nervous system. Glutamate is an excitatory transmitter, when it is released it increases the chance that the neuron will fire. This enhances the electrical flow among brain cells required for normal function and plays an important role during early brain development. It may also assist in learning and memory. Problems in making or using glutamate have been linked to many mental disorders.

Brain Regions

Just as many neurons working together form a circuit, many circuits work together to form specialized brain systems. We have many specialized brain systems that work across specific brain regions to help us talk, help us make sense of what we see, and help us to solve a problem. Some of the regions most commonly studied in mental-health research are listed below.

Amygdala—The brain’s fear hub, which activates our natural fight-or-flight response to confront or escape from a dangerous situation. The amygdala also appears to be involved in learning to fear an event, such as touching a hot stove and learning not to fear, such as overcoming a fear of spiders. Studying how the amygdala helps create memories of fear and safety may help improve treatments for anxiety disorders like phobias or posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)—Seat of the brain’s executive functions, such as judgment, decision making, and problem-solving. Different parts of the PFC are involved in using short-term or working memory and