An Engraved Landscape: Rock carvings in the Wadi al-Ajal, Libya: 2 Volume Set

By Tertia Barnett

An Engraved Landscape is a contextual analysis of a substantial new corpus of engravings from the Wadi al-Ajal, situated in the Central Saharan region of south west Libya. The wadi is renowned as the heartland of the Garamantian civilization, which emerged from local mobile Pastoral communities in the 1st millennium BC, and dominated trans-Saharan trade and politics for over a thousand years. Extensive archaeological and palaeoenvironmental investigations in recent years have provided detailed insight into the later prehistory and protohistory of the wadi and surrounding areas. However, prior to the fieldwork detailed in this work, only a handful of carvings had been recorded in the wadi.

This work is based on systematic survey, conducted between 2004 and 2009, which recorded around 2,500 previously unknown or unpublished engraved and inscribed rock surfaces. All forms of engraving, whether figurative or surface markings, were viewed as significant residues of human interaction with the rock surface and were recorded. The resulting database provides an opportunity to analyze the engravings in relation to their changing physical and cultural contexts, and the discussion offers a fresh interpretation of Saharan rock art based on this substantial new evidence. An Engraved Landscape also captures in detail a unique heritage resource that is currently inaccessible and threatened. This record of the fragile engravings provides an important source of information for researchers and students.

• Language: English
• Publisher: British Institute for Libyan and Northern African Studies
• Release date: Feb 23, 2023
• ISBN: 9781900971386

Book preview

Contents

An Engraved Landscape: VOLUME 1

An Engraved Landscape: VOLUME 2

Copyright

Volume 1: About the Book

An Engraved Landscape is a contextual analysis of a substantial new corpus of engravings from the Wadi al-Ajal, situated in the Central Saharan region of south west Libya. The wadi is renowned as the heartland of the Garamantian civilization, which emerged from local mobile Pastoral communities in the 1st millennium BC, and dominated trans-Saharan trade and politics for over a thousand years. Extensive archaeological and palaeoenvironmental investigations in recent years have provided detailed insight into the later prehistory and protohistory of the wadi and surrounding areas. However, prior to the fieldwork detailed in this volume, only a handful of carvings had been recorded in the wadi. This volume is based on systematic survey, conducted between 2004 and 2009, which recorded around 2,500 previously unknown or unpublished engraved and inscribed rock surfaces. All forms of engraving, whether figurative or surface markings, were viewed as significant residues of human interaction with the rock surface and were recorded. The resulting database provides an opportunity to analyse the engravings in relation to their changing physical and cultural contexts, and the discussion offers a fresh interpretation of Saharan rock art based on this substantial new evidence. An Engraved Landscape also captures in detail a unique heritage resource that is currently inaccessible and threatened. This record of the fragile engravings provides an important source of information for researchers and students. Volume 2 contains a gazetteer of the engravings.

Volume 2: About the Book

An Engraved Landscape is a contextual analysis of a substantial new corpus of engravings from the Wadi al-Ajal, situated in the Central Saharan region of south west Libya. The wadi is renowned as the heartland of the Garamantian civilization, which emerged from local mobile Pastoral communities in the 1st millennium BC, and dominated trans-Saharan trade and politics for over a thousand years. Extensive archaeological and palaeoenvironmental investigations in recent years have provided detailed insight into the later prehistory and protohistory of the wadi and surrounding areas. However, prior to the fieldwork detailed in this volume, only a handful of carvings had been recorded in the wadi. This gazetteer volume 2 (and volume 1, a synthesis), are based on systematic survey, conducted between 2004 and 2009, which recorded around 2,500 previously unknown or unpublished engraved and inscribed rock surfaces. All forms of engraving, whether figurative or surface markings, were viewed as significant residues of human interaction with the rock surface and were recorded. The resulting database provides an opportunity to analyse the engravings in relation to their changing physical and cultural contexts, and the discussion offers a fresh interpretation of Saharan rock art based on this substantial new evidence. An Engraved Landscape also captures in detail a unique heritage resource that is currently inaccessible and threatened. This record of the fragile engravings provides an important source of information for researchers and students.

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To the memory of my mother, an adventurous spirit

CONTENTS

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List of Figures

List of Tables

Acknowledgements

INTRODUCTION

SECTION 1. Setting the scene

Chapter 1. Saharan rock art: overview, and history of discovery and research

Chapter 2. Saharan climate and environment during the Holocene

Chapter 3. Human activity in the Holocene Sahara

Chapter 4. Chronology of Saharan rock art

SECTION 2. The engravings of the Wadi al-Ajal

Chapter 5. Data collection methods and rationale

Chapter 6. Survey findings and chronology

Chapter 7. Subjects and themes

Chapter 8. Surface markings

SECTION 3. Putting the engravings in place

Chapter 9. Locational analysis of the Wadi al-Ajal engravings

Chapter 10. Rock engravings within the cultural landscape

Chapter 11. Final remarks

APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Pre-Pastoral and Pastoral sites within the Wadi al-Ajal Rock Art Project survey area

Appendix 2. 3D modelling of rock art

Bibliography

LIST OF FIGURES

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Introduction

Figure 1. The Fezzan region showing the location of the Wadi al-Ajal and areas mentioned in the text.

Figure 2. View north across arable fields in the wadi to the dunes of the Ubari sand sea.

Figure 3. View west across the wadi showing the Messak escarpment.

Figure 4. View of the wadi landscape showing main topographic features.

Figure 5. Contrasting landscapes: (a) Gentle terrain on the southern edge of the Messak; (b) Steep, rocky escarpment at the northern edge of the Messak, in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 6a. Satellite image of the Wadi al-Ajal showing main points of access from the south (large arrows) and secondary, relatively easy routes along small watercourses (small arrows).

Figure 6b. A wide break in the Messak massif offers an easy route into the Wadi al-Ajal from the south through the Bab el-Maknusa (Maknusa Pass). View looking south.

Figure 6c. Relatively easy access into the Wadi al-Ajal at the southern end of Wadi Bouza. View looking north.

Figure 7. Agriculture in the wadi today.

Figure 8. Contemporary nomadic pastoralists in Fezzan.

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1a. Large 2m high engraved elephant, Wadi In Galguien, Messak Settafet, Libya.

Figure 1.1b. Engravings of cattle, Wadi Tiksatin, Messak Settafet, Libya.

Figure 1.1c. Engravings of giraffe, Wadi Mathenduch, Messak Settafet, Libya.

Figure 1.1d. Small engraving of a rhinoceros, Aït Ouazik, Morocco.

Figure 1.1e. Engravings of cattle, Adrar n’Metgourine, Morocco.

Figure 1.1f. Engravings of gazelle, Tiggane, Morocco.

Figure 1.1g. Painted rock art from Tin Taborak, Acacus Mountains, Libya.

Figure 1.1h. Engraved abstract motif, Aït Ouazik, Morocco.

Figure 1.2. Barth’s drawing of rock art set within the landscape of Wadi Tilizahren, Libya.

Figure 1.3. Main concentrations of rock art in the Sahara.

Figure 1.4. Carved rock surfaces along the sides of a river canyon in the Messak.

Figure 1.5. Satellite image of the Wadi al-Ajal showing the location of engravings recorded prior to the Wadi al-Ajal Rock Art Project.

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1. Generalised Holocene climate change in the Sahara between 10,000 BC and present day.

Figure 2.2. An approximation of the Saharan environment in the Middle Holocene, characterised by savannah vegetation.

Figure 2.3. A typical desert landscape of the Sahara today.

Figure 2.4. The changing Holocene landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal, showing the approximate extent of the lake (based on Armitage et al 2007; Brooks et al 2003; Drake et al 2004, 2007, 2011a): (a) Early Holocene; (b) Middle Holocene; (c) Late Holocene before the 2nd millennium BC; (d) Around the 2nd–1st millennium BC.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1. Summary of Holocene cultural developments and climate change in the Fezzan region.

Figure 3.2. Earliest known evidence for domestic cattle in the eastern portion of North Africa.

Figure 3.3a. An in situ trapping stone on the Messak plateau.

Figure 3.3b. Engraving from Wadi Mathendusch, Messak, depicting a giraffe moving towards a circular motif with ‘rays’. This motif has been interpreted by some scholars as a trap attached by a rope to a trapping stone.

Figure 3.4. Detail of a milking scene engraved on a panel in Wadi Tiksatin, Messak Settafet.

Figure 3.5. Polished stone labrets, used for facial and bodily adornment primarily in the Late Pastoral period.

Figure 3.6. Aerial photograph of a Late Pastoral antenna tomb from Erg Uan Kasa, Central Sahara.

Figure 3.7. The landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal today showing areas of dense settlement and farming (green), and the tarmac road running along the axis of the wadi (red line).

Figure 3.8a. The Early Holocene landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal. Yellow circles = Pre-Pastoral and Early Pastoral sites. White circles = Middle and Late Pastoral sites, and chronologically undifferentiated Pastoral sites. White triangles = Late Pastoral burials (based on Mattingly et al 2003, 2007). Dashed white lines denote the area covered by the Wadi al-Ajal Rock Art Project survey.

Figure 3.8b. Remnants of an ephemeral lake in an interdune corridor in the Ubari sand sea, now reduced to a salt-encrusted deposit. Small bodies of water such as this were a focus for occupation in the Early-Middle Holocene, and are often fringed with surface scatters of prehistoric artefacts.

Figure 3.9. The Middle Holocene landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal. Yellow circles = Pre-Pastoral and Early Pastoral sites. White circles = Middle and Late Pastoral sites, and chronologically undifferentiated Pastoral sites. White triangles = Late Pastoral burials (based on Mattingly et al 2003, 2007). Dashed white lines denote the area covered by the Wadi al-Ajal Rock Art Project survey.

Figure 3.10. The Late Holocene landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal. Yellow circles = Pre-Pastoral and Early Pastoral sites. White circles = Middle and Late Pastoral sites, and chronologically undifferentiated Pastoral sites. White triangles = Late or Final Pastoral burials (based on Mattingly et al 2003, 2007). Dashed white lines denote the area covered by the Wadi al-Ajal Rock Art Project survey.

Figure 3.11. Garamantian fortifications associated with the Early and Proto-urban Garamantian escarpment settlement at Zinchecra.

Figure 3.12. Garamantian landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal. White circles = Garamantian settlements. White triangles = Garamantian cemeteries. White lines = foggara systems (based on Mattingly et al 2003, 2007). Dashed white lines denote the area covered by the Wadi al-Ajal Rock Art Project survey.

Figure 3.13. (a) Cemetery of stone built Garamantian burial cairns on the lower slopes of the escarpment; (b) ‘Royal’ pyramid tombs; (c) Drum shaped burial cairn with small stela and offering table placed at the tomb entrance; (d) Detail of funerary stela and offering table.

Figure 3.14. Large partly worked quarried block close to the base of the escarpment in the Germa basin.

Figure 3.15. Main trans-Saharan Garamantian trade routes.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1. Naturalistic engravings of the extinct long-horned African buffalo, Bubalus antiquus, from the Messak Settafet.

Figure 4.2. Broad chronology for the probable physical appearance or disappearance of specific animal species, material culture, and inscriptions in the Central Sahara.

Figure 4.3. Paintings of so-called ‘flying gallop’ horses and chariot from Tarseed Jebest, Ajjer Plateau, Algeria.

Figure 4.4. Engravings of possible daggers from Tiggane, Morocco. The right hand image is in the Tazina style, and is thought to depict a metal dagger, although other interpretations are possible. The left hand image is a more convincing representation of a metal dagger, but may be a later addition.

Figure 4.5. Stylistic chronologies for the Messak engravings proposed by different authors.

Figure 4.6. Examples of engraving styles: (a) Bubaline; (b) Tazina; (c) Pastoral; (d) Horse; (e) Camel.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1. Extent of the Wadi al-Ajal Rock Art Project survey (marked by solid white lines) detailing showing the separate survey areas (marked by dashed white lines).

Figure 5.2. Field survey and recording in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 5.3. Recording the wadi engravings with text-based proformas, and conventional photography.

Figure 5.4. Night time laser scanning of engravings by the team from Bristol University, using battery-operated lighting.

Figure 5.5. Recording engravings using photogrammetry to create 3D models.

Figure 5.6. Screen shots from laser scanning at ELH018G.

Figure 5.7. Screen shots from photogrammetry: (a) With and without texture (FJJ147E and F); (b) With and without texture, and rotated (TAG291B).

Figure 5.8. The effects of weathering: (a) Eroded carvings (LGR188B1); (b) Partially exfoliated carvings (ELH138A).

Figure 5.9. Human impact on the engravings: (a) Reuse of a carved stone (TWE104A) in a later structure as part of a wall encircling a Marabout tomb; (b) Development along the line of the main road close to an elaborately carved boulder (TWE110); (c) A modern sandstone quarry encroaching on a number of important carvings and archaeological structures on the Germa escarpment.

Figure 5.10. The engravings are visually accessible within the arid, unvegetated terrain of the escarpment.

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1. Distribution of all engraved panels recorded by the Wadi al-Ajal Rock Art Project survey (dashed white lines show the extent of the survey). Panels outside the survey area were recorded by the Fezzan Project.

Figure 6.2. Examples of some of the engraving types in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) Indeterminate pecked images with random pecking (BOU048 and GSC152); (b) Abstract pecked image with small cup marks (BOU055); (c) Tifinagh inscription (FUG148); (d) Grooves (TEK183B); (e) Hollow, cupmark, grooves, incisions, abstract motifs, and inscriptions (TAG188D).

Figure 6.3. Frequency of panels featuring the main engraving types in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 6.4a. Frequency of panels featuring each engraving sub-type in the Wadi al-Ajal

Figure 6.4b. Frequency of individual images

Figure 6.4c. Frequency of individual surface markings, where quantified

Figure 6.5. Examples of images showing the criteria used for classification: (a) Naturalistic figurative image with smoothed outline (FJJ236); (b) Extended semi-naturalistic figurative image with incised outline (MAK005B); (c) Semi-naturalistic figurative image with incised outline (TEK167); (d) Stylised figurative image with smoothed outline, partly superimposed by a schematic pecked image, and with several grooves above (TEK157); (e) Stylised figurative image with pecked outline (BOU022); (f) Schematic pecked image (BOU015); (g) Schematic incised image (TEK133B).

Figure 6.6a. Relative percentages of different image forms within each stylistic group.

Figure 6.6b. Relative percentages of main techniques used to engrave images within each stylistic group.

Figure 6.6c. Relative percentages of chronologically sensitive content within each stylistic group.

Figure 6.6d. Relative percentages of different patina types on images within each stylistic group.

Figure 6.7. Percentage of reworked images within each stylistic group.

Figure 6.8. Proposed chronology for the Wadi al-Ajal engravings, showing their possible cultural and environmental contexts, and the relationship to stylistic chronologies for the Messak engravings proposed by different authors.

Figure 6.9a. Wallpaper style engraving of a possible antelope showing the pecking technique used for all images in this stylistic category (FJJ012).

Figure 6.9b1. Wallpaper style engravings of possible cattle on the north face of a boulder with four vertical carved surfaces in southern Wadi Bouzna (BOU0032D).

Figure 6.9b2. Wallpaper style engravings of possible cattle and other animals on the east face of a boulder with four vertical carved surfaces in southern Wadi Bouzna (BOU0032A).

Figure 6.9b3. Wallpaper style engravings of possible cattle and other animals on the south face of a boulder with four vertical carved surfaces in southern Wadi Bouzna (BOU0032B).

Figure 6.9b4. Wallpaper style engravings of possible cattle and other animals, including an elephant and rhinoceros, on the west face of a boulder with four vertical carved surfaces in southern Wadi Bouzna (BOU0032C).

Figure 6.10. Wallpaper style engravings including three possible images of cattle (TAG183A).

Figure 6.11. A collection of unusual early pecked figurative and abstract images, with later incised images (ELH018F).

Figure 6.12. Kel Essuf engravings from the Algerian Acacus.

Figure 6.13. Examples of Bubaline style engravings from the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) MAK017A; (b) FJJ147C in association with other styles of images; (c) ELH018C; (d) FJJ012; (e) LGR185 showing a small engraving of a Bubalus antiquus and ostriches; (f) MAK003A1 damaged engraving of a Bubaline style Bubalus antiquus and rhinoceros, with other animals in different styles.

Figure 6.14. Relative percentages of wild animals, domestic animals, and anthropomorphs in each stylistic group.

Figure 6.15. Distribution of Tazina style engravings in North Africa.

Figure 6.16. Examples of Tazina style engravings from the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) LGR107A; (b) LGR189A; (c) LGR189B; (d) MAK004B; (e) MAK008B; (f) MAK018B1 showing the fine incised lines and feathered tail displayed in the some of the wadi Tazina images.

Figure 6.17. Surface working with Tazina style engravings: (a) Oued Miskaou, Morocco; (b) Wadi al-Ajal (FJJ028H).

Figure 6.18. Pastoral style figurative images of animals in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) FJJ124A; (b) FJJ130D; (c) FJJ131; (d) TAG041; (e) ELH136J.

Figure 6.19a. Engravings of giraffe with attributes of both Bubaline and Pastoral styles (deeply incised and partially smoothed outlines but semi-naturalistic style with no anatomical detail and light Mn rich-red patina). The image on the left is possibly earlier Pastoral style (FJJ109).

Figure 6.19b. Engraving of a possible domestic cow with attributes of Pastoral and Horse styles (stylised, pecked outline and red patina) (FUG125).

Figure 6.20. Examples of Horse style engravings from the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) FJJ291A; (b) MAK016A2; (c) TWE100A; (d) BOU017B; (e) FUG197B; (f) MAK016F.

Figure 6.21. Horse style images with Libyan inscriptions, and later images and incisions (FJJ028P1).

Figure 6.22. Horse style engravings of giraffe: (a) Dynamic (BOU038); (b) Static (FUG101A).

Figure 6.23. Examples of Camel style engravings in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) GSC142; (b) FUG018A; (c) TAG208; (d) TAG114; (e) TAG239.

Fig 6.24. Camel style engravings with sandal outlines and Libyan inscriptions (TAG022A).

Figure 6.25. Engraving of left-facing emblematic eagle, thought to represent the Hawk of Quraish (FUG128).

Figure 6.26. Comparison between engraving styles: (a) the Wadi al-Ajal (TAG260); (b) the Messak (Wadi Mathendusch).

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1. Frequency and percentages of different types of figurative images depicted in the Wadi al-Ajal engravings.

Figure 7.2. Relative proportions of clearly identifiable wild animal and bird species.

Figure 7.3. Relative frequency of domestic animals identified with a high degree of certainty.

Figure 7.4. Percentages of wild and domestic animals depicted in each stylistic category in the Wadi al-Ajal (excluding Modern carvings).

Figure 7.5. Percentage of main identifiable domestic animals and total identifiable wild species depicted within each stylistic category in the Wadi al-Ajal (excluding Modern carvings).

Figure 7.6. Percentages of domestic animals and giraffes depicted within each stylistic category in the Wadi al-Ajal (excluding Modern carvings).

Figure 7.7. Horse style engraving of a horse, possibly with cattle horns added (FJJ291A).

Figure 7.8a. Engravings of giraffe with elaborate hide markings (FJJ111A).

Figure 7.8b. Engraving of a cow with elaborate hide markings (LGR104K).

Figure 7.8c. Engravings of cattle with saddle shapes on their backs and possible horn decoration. The images have been reworked with hide pecking, changes to the head shape, and the addition of eyes (TAG028A).

Figure 7.8d. Engraving of a probable domestic cow with a form of linear horn decoration, comparable to the linear forked motif associated with horns of some domestic cattle engravings in the Messak (TEK150).

Figure 7.8e. Engraving of a bull with hide markings and a linear forked motif across its horns, Wadi Mathendusch, Messak.

Figure 7.9. Cattle with possible trappings around their necks: (a) showing decorated hides and possible horn decoration (GSC122A); (b) with neck decoration added later (GSC119A).

Figure 7.10. Engraving of a possible cow ridden by a human figure. The human figure appears to be a later addition (LGR195B).

Figure 7.11. Human figures depicted firing arrows at giraffes: (a) FJJ120D; (b) LGR159D.

Figure 7.12. FJJ028S: (a) Juxtaposed engravings of cattle and giraffe with identical postures and elaborate hide or body markings; (b) The images are placed on different levels of the rock surface, as if occupying different physical spaces or conceptual dimensions; (c) An ambiguous creature on the left edge of the panel moves towards the images in the panel centre.

Figure 7.13. An arrangement of cattle and giraffe in which the giraffe all move from left to right across the panels. The head and body of one giraffe are on separate panels. The far left image on the upper panel appears to have both human and giraffe characteristics (FJJ130B and D).

Figure 7.14. ‘Monstrous’ ambiguous creature (BOU050).

Figure 7.15. Comparable ambiguous animals with elongated bodies and heads occurring in very similar contexts: (a) The panel at ELH018C; (b) Detail of ambiguous animal (EHL018C); (c) Detail of ambiguous animal on an adjacent panel (ELH018D); (d) The panel at FJJ012; (e) Detail of ambiguous animals (FJJ012).

Figure 7.16. Frequency of identifiable therianthropic, non-human and human figures depicted within each stylistic category in the Wadi al-Ajal engravings.

Figure 7.17. Therianthropes or masked human figures: (a) ELH018E1; (b) TAG291B; (c) TAG291B detail.

Figure 7.18. ‘Cordiform’ motif at ELH018C, occurring on a panel with elephant headed or masked anthropomorphic figures.

Figure 7.19. Feline-headed phallic anthropomorphs: (a) FJJ139A; (b) FJJ139A detail; (c) Fragment of feline-headed anthropomorph, Wadi Mathendusch, Messak; (d) Phallic anthropomorph with identical posture to the Wadi al-Ajal anthropomorphs, Wadi Mathendusch, Messak.

Figure 7.20. Ithyphallic insect-headed anthropomorph: (a) LGR179C; (b) LGR179C detail.

Figure 7.21. The anthropomorphic figure on the upper left of the panel features two sets of arms (TAG194C).

Figure 7.22. Multiple, mostly phallic, anthropomorphic figures with outstretched arms and legs (TEK168).

Figure 7.23. Horse style anthropomorphic figures with possible ostrich feather plumed-headgear (ZIN279).

Figure 7.24. Possible Garamantian male anthropomorphic figure with bas relief features (FJJ272B).

Figure 7.25a. Human figure ‘standing’ on the back of a cow. Two human figures with possible square shields kneel in front of the cow and human figure (ELH155).

Figure 7.25b. Human figure ‘riding’ a possible giraffe (FJJ146B).

Figure 7.26. Possible masked or animal-headed anthropomorph with a bow firing an arrow at a rhinoceros (FJJ023).

Figure 7.27. Human figure holding two circular objects on sticks, in front of a cow: (a) LGR191; (b) LGR191 detail.

Figure 7.28. Garamantian human figures with elaborate headgear, holding circular shields, a short linear object that may represent a sword or stick (left hand figure), and a bow (right hand figure). The figures are associated with two ambiguous, long-necked (or horned, in the case of the left hand image) creatures (GSC114A).

Figure 7.29. Horse style bi-triangular human figure with a spear. Note the detail on the clothing and headgear, and the symbols beside the figure’s waist (MAK016A3).

Figure 7.30a. Two symmetrically arranged Horse style bi-triangular human figures holding a dagger, positioned above a large pecked cup mark (LGR109A).

Figure 7.30b. Spear or long javelin held by a Camel style rider (TAG023D).

Figure 7.31. Camel with rider, and circular object (possibly a water-skin or metal dish) hanging beneath the camel’s belly (LGR138).

Figure 7.32. ‘Trident’ shaped objects and symbols: (a) Horse rider holding a trident-shaped object (FJJ028P1); (b) Trident symbol associated with cattle (FJJ190); (c) Trident symbol associated with a camel (FJJ210).

Figure 7.33. Kneeling Garamantian figure with a short Libyan inscription: (a) TAG292; (b) TAG292 detail.

Figure 7.34. ‘Adorant’ Pastoral style human figures with arms bent and raised upwards: (a) TEK130; (b) ELH100C.

Figure 7.35. Garamantian human figures with contrasting gestures, one with arms bent outwards, the other with arms bent downwards, possibly expressing different concepts: (a) ZIN902.13-15; (b) ZIN902.13-15 (inset) detail.

Figure 7.36. Percentage of directionality of animals and anthropomorphs within each stylistic category in the Wadi al-Ajal engravings.

Figure 7.37. Contested bulls and directional cattle (TWE110A).

Figure 7.38. A collection of animals, engraved as if in motion, appear to emerge out of a dark cleft in the rock into the floor of the wadi. Note also the forked linear motifs (see Abstract) (FJJ147E).

Figure 7.39. Indeterminate images: (a) Incomplete outline of a probable cow (GSC148); (b) Image of a bovid badly damaged by removal of painted graffiti (ZIN902.3); (c) Indistinct eroded image of a probable animal (TAG164E).

Figure 7.40. Frequency of indeterminate images within each stylistic category of the Wadi al-Ajal engravings (excluding Modern).

Figure 7.41. Indeterminate figurative image of a probable giraffe depicted without a head (GSC129C).

Figure 7.42. Indeterminate images on slabs that form part of the structure of several probable Late Pastoral burial cairns: (a) Hybrid animal, possibly part gazelle (left facing) part boar/pig (right facing) (FJJ328A); (b) Probable giraffe without a head (FJJ382B); (c) Crudely pecked probable giraffe depicted without a head (FJJ382C); (d) Two of the three stone cairns in this group.

Figure 7.43. Main areas of the Sahara with depictions of chariots.

Figure 7.44. Images of chariots and wheeled vehicles in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) Compilation of chariot engravings from FJJ291A, GSC145, FJJ291A, TAG242, MAK016A1, and GCS041; (b) Series of three chariots with a human figure and possible horses, within a Garamantian cemetery (GSC041); (c) Crudely pecked outline of a possible chariot partly superimposed by a Libyan inscription (ELH116B); (d) Wheeled hand-cart with jar, pulled by a Garamantian figure holding a linear object, possibly a stick (FJJ028U); (e) Detail of possible human figure yoked to a chariot engraving (TEK164).

Figure 7.45. Representations of sandals and feet in the Wadi al-Ajal engravings: (a) Multiple sandal outlines (FJJ175A); (b) Multiple sandal outlines with small cupules denoting the cross-strap and toe attachments (FJJ239); (c) Feet outlines with toes (FJJ235); (d) Sandal outline with incised cross-strap (FUG124); (e) Sandal outlines with unusual herring-bone design on the soles (MAK020A).

Figure 7.46a. Sandal outline in conjunction with Horse style images and a Libyan inscription. The sandal outline has a similar patina to the bi-triangular human figure (TAG009B).

Figure 7.46b. Sandal outlines enclosing Libyan inscriptions (MAK007B2).

Figure 7.46c. Sandal outlines, one of which partly superimposes an eroded Pastoral style image of a probable gazelle (FJJ172).

Figure 7.46d. Sandal outline associated with abstract motifs and Libyan inscriptions, superimposing some inscribed characters (TAG216A).

Figure 7.47. Frequency of abstract images attributed to each stylistic category of the Wadi al-Ajal engravings (excluding Modern carvings).

Figure 7.48. Elongated rectilinear motif with possible animal- or human-like attributes (ELH018F).

Figure 7.49a. Bifurcated, elongated curvilinear motifs associated with image of a probable rhinoceros (FJJ147D1).

Figure 7.49b. Tazina style bifurcated, elongated curvilinear motifs, Aït Ouzik, Morocco.

Figure 7.50. Circular and ovoid motifs in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) Pecked circular motif associated with elephant’s trunk (BOU045A); (b) Circular and ovoid motifs with smoothed outlines (FUG120);

(c) Smoothed ovoid shapes associated with possible Pastoral style images (FJJ028B); (d) Pecked ovoid encircling a Pastoral style ostrich (FJJ028Q).

Figure 7.51a. Spear-shaped motifs and grooves (TAG025E).

Figure 7.51b. Spear-shaped motifs and other abstract images. One spear motif cuts across the neck of a giraffe image (FJJ022D2).

Figure 7.52a. Detail of a scene depicting probable milking of domestic cattle, Wadi Tiksatin, Messak, showing forked linear motifs supporting what might be containers for milk, or milk products.

Figure 7.52b. Forked linear motif associated with a cupmark (FUG140).

Figure 7.53a. Nasse motifs with Tazina style carvings, Tiggane, Morocco.

Figure 7.53b. Nasse motifs with Tazina style carvings in the Wadi al-Ajal (LGR107A and B).

Figure 7.54. Geometric abstract motifs in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) Gridded triangular motif (TEK231); (b) With Horse and Camel style images (FJJ028T1); (c) With Camel style images (FJJ027C4) (camel with rider shown on the far right-hand corner of the panel).

Figure 7.55a. An X motif with multiple grooves (FJJ314A).

Figure 7.55b. A sequence of contiguous X symbols, with bi-triangular human figures (ZIN565A).

Figure 7.55c. Detail of X symbols at ZIN565A.

Figure 7.55d. Detail of bi-triangular human figures at ZIN565A.

Figure 7.56a. Single Libyan inscription (TAG285B).

Figure 7.56b. Multiple Libyan inscriptions, superimposed by white painted Asian graffiti (GRA140).

Figure 7.57. Multiple Libyan inscriptions written in different directions (FUG175A).

Figure 7.58a. The only example of a painted Libyan inscription within the Wadi al-Ajal Rock Art Project survey area (BOU047B).

Figure 7.58b. Context of BOU047B, within a rock shelter in the Wadi Bouzna.

Figure 7.59a. Libyan inscription with Horse style engravings (FUG157D1).

Figure 7.59b. Libyan inscription with Camel style engravings (FJJ022C1).

Figure 7.60. Libyan inscriptions and Camel style images forming part of a possible narrative (TAG023A).

Figure 7.61. Libyan inscriptions associated with sandal outlines (TAG217).

Figure 7.62a. Libyan inscriptions superimposed over Pastoral style images of cattle (TAG143).

Figure 7.62b. Libyan inscriptions superimposed over later Pastoral style images of giraffe (TAG024D).

Figure 7.62c. Libyan inscriptions superimposed over a hollow (TAG108B).

Figure 7.63. Libyan inscription on a Garamantian funerary stela, providing a terminus ante quem for the inscription (TAG282).

Figure 7.64. Arabic inscriptions superimposed over a Horse style bovid (TAG009C and D).

Figure 7.65. Dated Arabic inscriptions over Bubaline style carvings (MAK003A1): (a) photograph taken in 2004; (b) photograph taken in 2008, showing an additional inscription created in 2004 after our visit.

Figure 7.66a. Arabic inscriptions and graffiti surrounding and overlying Horse style carvings at Zinchecra.

Figure 7.66b. Detail of painted graffiti covering Horse style carvings at Zinchecra.

Figure 7.67a. Asian graffiti painted over Horse and Camel style engravings (TEK112A).

Figure 7.67b. Detail of painted graffiti over Pastoral style engravings (FJJ130B).

Figure 7.68. Unknown incised script: (a) CHA115A; (b) CHA115F.

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1. Percentage of all panels with classifiable images in each stylistic category associated with surface markings.

Figure 8.2. Single cupmarks associated with figurative images: (a) Below the tail of a Tazina style animal (ELH139B); (b) On the body and behind the tail of a Tazina style animal (ELH139C).

Figure 8.3. Deep holes gouged into vertical panels: (a) CHA115H; (b) ZIN565A.

Figure 8.4. Linear arrangement of multiple small cupmarks (ZIN567A).

Figure 8.5. Multiple cupmarks on a panel without engraved images (ZIN506).

Figure 8.6. Examples of different types of grooves in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) short, multiple grooves (LGR105R); (b) medium grooves (FUG176D1); (c) long grooves (FUG190A).

Figure 8.7. Possible polishing grooves: (a) From the Wadi al-Ajal (TEK135); (b) From Morbihan, France; (c) From Aboriginal sites in Australia.

Figure 8.8. Fragment of polished green stone cylindrical object, possibly part of a ronde-bosse or rondin de pierre, from the TAG survey area of the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 8.9. Tazina engravings intimately associated with medium grooves: (a) In the Wadi al-Ajal (LGR110A2); (b) Aït Ouazik, Morocco.

Figure 8.10. Polished stone beads in a variety of materials, from Garamantian contexts in the Wadi al-Ajal (GER002).

Figure 8.11. Portable sandstone bead grinders from Garamantian contexts in the Wadi al-Ajal (GER002).

Figure 8.12. Short, parallel grooves with eroded images (FUG176B1&2).

Figure 8.13. Long grooves with no patina, associated with Libyan inscriptions, a narrow, deep groove, and an X shape (FUG153D).

Figure 8.14. Grooves with no morphological counterpart in utilitarian markings, that may result from extraction of rock material or deliberate modification of the rock: (a) Wide groove associated with Libyan inscriptions, other deep grooves, and irregular holes (FUG155G); (b) Groups of short, parallel grooves within a natural amphitheatre of rock (FJJ106A).

Figure 8.15. Hollows in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) Ovoid hollow with use-wear (fine surface striations and a worn lip at one end of the hollow) (ELH115B); (b) Deep, overlapping semi-circular basins lacking surface wear (FUG162G); (c) Deep, circular depressions with fine grooves on the lip, reminiscent of the Acacus ‘kettles’ (FUG162F).

Figure 8.16. Dense cluster of adjacent and occasionally overlapping or truncated hollows, with a variety of grooves, on gently sloping rock surfaces (FJJ326E-F).

Figure 8.17. Shallow hollows with polished surfaces superimposed by sandals and inscriptions, and overlying earlier images. The panel also features a grooved abrader and the remnants of other earlier engravings (TAG188C3).

Figure 8.18. Hollows resulting from utilitarian, possibly food processing activities: (a) Hollow with polished surface and fine striations (FJJ296); (b) Context of FJJ296: Several adjacent hollows with polished surfaces and fine striations on a gently sloping fragmented rock outcrop.

Figure 8.19. Hollows resulting from utilitarian activities, including possible stone polishing: (a) Multiple hollows of different dimensions with dark patina and grinding or polishing use wear, and two grooved abraders (FJJ326H); (b) Several shallow polissoirs hollows with grooved abraders (FJJ022B).

Figure 8.20. Hollow created from an enhanced natural feature with two sandal engravings arranged symmetrically beside it (FJJ251).

Figure 8.21a. Detail of a Tazina style engraving of a giraffe with numerous fine surface incisions on the body, possibly made with a stone implement (ELH100B).

Figure 8.21b. Multiple fine incisions, possibly made with a metal implement, in conjunction with a Camel style image of a horse and rider, and abstract geometric motifs (FJJ028G).

Figure 8.22. Two relatively discrete areas of pecking, some over polished areas: A discrete area of intensive pecking over a Pastoral style engraving of a probable domestic cow (BOU062A); (b) A further area of pecking to one side of the animal image (BOU043).

Figure 8.23a. Abraded areas of the panel superimposed by an inscription and (to the right) an engraving of a camel (ZIN525B).

Figure 8.23b. An area of polishing partly obscuring a pecked indeterminate image (LGR199).

Figure 8.24a. Evidence of quarrying in the Germa escarpment area of the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 8.24b. Remnants of quarrying activity, with stone wedges and levers still in place.

Figure 8.25. Possible Awari board (BOU062C).

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1a. View of the escarpment at TAG.

Figure 9.1b. Demonstrating the difficult access to the upper cliff of the escarpment.

Figure 9.2a. Profile of the vertical topography in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.2b. Photograph showing the vertical topography of the escarpment.

Figure 9.2c. The edge of the Hamada in the southern TEK embayment.

Figure 9.2d. The Hamada with the escarpment in the background.

Figure 9.2e. Small inselbergs in the Maknusa Pass (MAK survey area).

Figure 9.2f. Large inselbergs in the ELH survey area.

Figure 9.3. Frequency of all engraved panels relative to vertical location.

Figure 9.4. Percentages of panels featuring different types of engravings relative to vertical location: (a) Figurative images, inscriptions and abstract motifs; (b) Surface markings.

Figure 9.5. Percentage of panels featuring each engraving style relative to vertical location.

Figure 9.6. Vertical panel on the upper cliff at ELH showing the restricted space for accessing and creating the carvings (ELH018C).

Figure 9.7. Frequency of all carved panels relative to rock surface incline (excluding surfaces with multiple slopes).

Figure 9.8. Percentage of panels featuring specific engraving types relative to surface incline: (a) Figurative images, inscriptions and abstract motifs; (b) Surface markings.

Figure 9.9. Percentage of panels featuring each engraving style relative to surface incline.

Figure 9.10. Frequency of all panels relative to rock surface orientation (vertical axis shows the panel frequency).

Figure 9.11. Percentage of panels relative to rock surface orientation (vertical axis shows the percentage of panels for each category of engravings): (a) Engraving types; (b) Engraving styles.

Figure 9.12. Examples of topographic contexts in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) Bank of a major river; (b) Junction of major rivers; (c) Small tributary of a major river; (d) End of a small promontory at the mouth of a river; (e) Inselberg; (f) Looking down into a pass between defined topographic features; (g) A cirque on the escarpment flank.

Figure 9.13. Percentage of panels featuring each engraving style relative to topographic context.

Figure 9.14. Percentage of panels featuring different engraving types relative to topographic context.

Figure 9.15. Google Earth image showing engravings of all types and styles concentrated at the end of a major promontory at TAG. Note that, due to the density of the engravings, at this scale many of the points represent multiple panels.

Figure 9.16. Google Earth image showing engravings clustered on a minor promontory at the point where several watercourses join and open into a wide fluvial pan (TEK154-184).

Figure 9.17a. A cluster of panels with Pastoral style engravings on the end of a small promontory at the mouth of a watercourse leading to the Hamada. There are stone footings of several small circular features constructed against the panels and the base of the escarpment (TEK155).

Figure 9.17b. An ambiguous creature is carved on the first panel one encounters if moving along the watercourse towards the wadi (TEK155A).

Figure 9.17c-d. The main panel features multiple, superimposed and interwoven images, including a prominent bovid-like animal with short lines radiating from its chest and legs (TEK155B).

Figure 9.17e. The last panel encountered on moving into the wadi features a partially complete elephant, as if in the process of transforming, or emerging from the rock (TEK155C).

Figure 9.17f. Another rock surface in this cluster shows a cow with magnificent upward curving horns possibly emerging from a fissure in the rock surface (although the fissure may post-date the image) (TEK155D).

Figure 9.17g. A horizontal panel within the same cluster features at least one possible grooved abrader, several short parallel grooves, and three areas of pecking and polishing, one with incised lines (TEK155E).

Figure 9.18a. Small embayment defined by minor promontories with engravings (FUG114-129) in the FUG survey area: (b) Engravings of water birds (including possible swans and flamingos) within the small FUG embayment (FUG117A); (c) Detail of FUG117A showing possible swans that appear to swim around, or out of, deep holes within the rock.

Figure 9.19. Panel with multiple grooves placed at a natural pass between well-defined topographic features (FJJ272A).

Figure 9.20a. Small rock shelter near the end of a major escarpment promontory.

Figure 9.20b. Small stream channel running steeply down the escarpment flank.

Figure 9.21a. Frequency of panels featuring each engraving style associated with rock shelters or niches, and small streams on the escarpment flanks and promontories.

Figure 9.21b. Frequency of panels featuring different engraving types associated with rock shelters or niches, and small streams on the escarpment flanks and promontories (IPP = Incised, pecked, polished).

Figure 9.22. Possible ritual themes or concepts depicted on a carved panel placed in a stream bed (GSC118): (a-b) Phallic ‘adorant’ anthropomorph with a crescent- or horn-shaped head or headdress, holding a crescent- or horn-shaped object in one raised hand. Note the lines radiating from the figure’s arm; (c) Pecked indeterminate and animal images associated with cupmarks.

Figure 9.23a. A ‘simple’ panel in a relatively inconspicuous context on the bottom lower slope of the escarpment flank (TAG249).

Figure 9.23b. The panel features a single individual image with no reworking (TAG249).

Figure 9.24a. Distribution of all engraved panels in the Wadi al-Ajal survey area, showing key places locations mentioned in the text. White dashed lines denote the extent to the rock art survey. Engraved panels outside the survey area are depicted in red.

Figure 9.24b. Density of all engraved panels known in the Wadi al-Ajal survey area showing key locations mentioned in the text (black areas denote high frequencies of engravings, white areas denote low frequencies of engravings).

Figure 9.25a. Google Earth image showing how engraved panels are concentrated at the end of the ZIN spur relative to the surrounding escarpment.

Figure 9.25b. Google Earth image showing the distribution of engraved panels within the small LGR embayment, and at the pass leading into this feature.

Figure 9.25c. Landscape within the small LGR embayment.

Figure 9.25d. View looking northeast across the wide TEK embayment.

Figure 9.26a. Density distribution of Wallpaper style images in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.26b. Density distribution of Bubaline style images in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.26c. Density distribution of Tazina style images in the Wadi al-Ajal, showing nasse motifs (white triangles).

Figure 9.27a. Context of BOU032A-D, a large, pale coloured boulder situated at the confluence of two wide rivers at the southern end of Wadi Bouzna. All four vertical surfaces of the boulder feature multiple Wallpaper style images.

Figure 9.27b. Google Earth image showing the location of a large boulder with Wallpaper style carvings at the junction of watercourses in southern Wadi Bouzna (BOU032, BOU053).

Figure 9.28a-b. Wallpaper style engravings superimposed by a Bubaline style image (TAG175A).

Figure 9.28c. Detail of the stratigraphic relationship between Wallpaper and Bubaline style engravings (FJJ012). The photograph shows two small, pecked Wallpaper style images of antelope, the right-hand one of which is cut through by the wide, smoothed lines of a Bubaline style giraffe.

Figure 9.29a. Large Bubaline style engraving of a rhinoceros high up on a vertical panel beside a narrow pass leading into the small LGR embayment (LGR102A).

Figure 9.29b. Looking north east across the small LGR embayment to the narrow pass.

Figure 9.30. Density distribution of Pastoral style images in the Wadi al-Ajal: (a) All Pastoral style engravings; (b) Earlier Pastoral style engravings; (c) later Pastoral style engravings.

Figure 9.31. Density distribution of Horse style images in the Wadi al-Ajal, showing the location of chariot motifs (white triangles).

Figure 9.32. Continuity of use: Frequency with which images in different engraving styles are depicted on the same panels.

Figure 9.33. Density distribution of Camel style images in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.34a. A typical Camel style panel featuring a single image (TAG250).

Figure 9.34b. Part of an atypical Camel style panel featuring multiple images, possibly forming a herding or caravan narrative (TAG203).

Figure 9.35. Density distribution of Modern images in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.36a. Density distribution of indeterminate images in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.36b. Density distribution of abstract images in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.36c. Density distribution of sandal outlines in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.37. Density distribution of inscriptions in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.38a. Density distribution of cupmarks in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.38b. Density distribution of grooves in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.38c. Density distribution of hollows in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.38d. Density distribution of incisions, pecking, and polishing in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.39. Google Earth image of the ZIN spur showing the distribution of cupmarked panels on the southern slopes, at the base of the northern slopes, and on the spur summit.

Figure 9.40a. One of several panels with large, ground cupmarks situated on the gentle slopes to the south of the ZIN spur (ZIN556). It is likely that these cupmarks were used for grinding or pounding. There are also grinding or polishing hollows on panels in the same area.

Figure 9.40b. One of several panels with multiple pecked cupmarks situated at the base of the northern slope of the ZIN spur (ZIN540). There are no hollows in this area, and it is probable that these cupmarks had a symbolic or ritual purpose rather than a practical function.

Figure 9.41a. Grooves at the end of the TAG promontory (TAG168F).

Figure 9.41b. Possible grooved abraders at the end of the FUG promontory (FUG156C).

Figure 9.42a. Possible grooved abraders on the summit of a low inselberg in the TEK embayment (TEK204A).

Figure 9.42b. Possible grooved abraders and an indeterminate image on a panel situated at the western-most tip of the upper cliff of the ELH promontory (ELH100D).

Figure 9.42c. View from ELH100D looking south west down Wadi Bouzna, close to its junction with the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 9.43a. Possible polissoirs hollows with grooved abraders, Libyan inscriptions, and a motif shaped like a polished stone axe (in the lower central part of the panel) (TAG169).

Figure 9.43b. Detail of the possible incised axe shape at TAG169 (lower right of the photograph).

Figure 9.44. Deep, circular hollow with polished internal surface cut through by two parallel, incised lines (FUG151).

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1. Suggested reconstruction of the Early Holocene landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal showing the distribution and density of Wallpaper style images (black hotspots, where black denotes the highest frequency of images) in relation to surface artefact scatters. Yellow dots = Pre-Pastoral and Early Pastoral occupation or activity sites, white dots = Early-Middle Pastoral or chronologically undifferentiated Pastoral sites, white dashed lines = extent of the rock survey. Lake levels are likely to have fluctuated during the Early Holocene and, consequently, some Pre-Pastoral/Early Pastoral deposits give the appearance of being underwater.

Figure 10.2. Fragment of a pestle with surface wear and polishing, part of a small scatter of Pastoral lithics found adjacent to a boulder carved with multiple Wallpaper style images (BOU032) in southern Wadi Bouzna.

Figure 10.3. Spatial relationship between Wallpaper style engravings and natural entry points into the wadi during the Early Holocene. Lake levels are estimated, and may have been lower at the time the carvings were made.

Figure 10.4. Access into southern Wadi Bouzna from the Messak plateau.

Figure 10.5a. One of the panels in the FJJ carving centre showing the density, superimposition, and modification of Tazina style images (FJJ147F).

Figure 10.5b. Part of the carving centre at the western side of the FJJ promontory terminus, featuring multiple Bubaline, Tazina and Pastoral style images clustered on the same or adjacent panels.

Figure 10.6. Suggested reconstruction of the Middle Holocene landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal showing the distribution and density of carvings in relation to surface artefact scatters: (a) Bubaline style images (green hotspots, where dark green denotes the highest frequency of images); (b) Tazina style images (red hotspots, where dark red denotes the highest frequency of images). Yellow dots = Early-Middle and Middle Pastoral occupation or activity sites, white dots = chronologically undifferentiated Pastoral sites, white dashed lines = extent of the rock survey.

Figure 10.7. Reworked and modified Pastoral style images (FJJ142A).

Figure 10.8. Suggested reconstruction of the Middle-Late Holocene landscape of the Wadi al-Ajal showing the distribution and density of Pastoral style carvings in relation to surface artefact scatters (blue hotspots, where dark blue denotes the highest frequency of images). Yellow dots = Middle-Late Pastoral occupation or activity sites, yellow triangles = Late/Final Pastoral burial monuments, white dots = Pre-Pastoral, Early Pastoral and chronologically undifferentiated Pastoral sites, white dashed lines = extent of the rock survey.

Figure 10.9. Possible Late Pastoral ‘proto-territories’ in the Wadi al-Ajal.

Figure 10.10. Google Earth image showing the dense clustering of carvings on the upper cliff and lower slopes of the ELH promontory terminus, and the absence of engravings away from the carving centre.

Figure 10.11a-c. A panel with ambiguous and entangled images engraved on the upper cliff of the ELH promontory terminus (ELH018G).

Figure 10.12. Suggested reconstruction of the Garamantian and Post-Garamantian landscapes: (a) 1st millennium BC: distribution and density of Horse style engravings in relation to Early and Proto-Urban Garamantian settlements and cemeteries. White dashed lines = extent of rock art survey, yellow circles = escarpment settlements, yellow triangles = cemeteries (based on Mattingly et al 2007); (b) 1st millennium AD: distribution and density of Camel style engravings in relation to Classic and Late Garamantian settlements and cemeteries. White dashed lines = extent of rock art survey, white circles = settlements, white triangles = cemeteries, solid white lines = foggara channels.

Figure 10.13. Boulders with processing hollows, grooved abraders and polishing situated at the entrances to possible circular dwellings within the Early/Proto-urban Garamantian escarpment