A History of the Apocalypse

By Catalin Negru

Each generation thinks its problems are the most important ever. As history flows without interruption and doomsday scenarios fail, following generations focus on their own contemporary events, ignoring or downplaying the past. In this way people always see “signs” in their times and the end of the world is a constantly fresh subject.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Lulu.com
• Release date: Jan 20, 2023
• ISBN: 9781447878216

Book preview

INTRODUCTION

In April 1993 the world watched in horror as 79 members of the Branch Davidians sect perished by being suffocated, shot or burned at their headquarters in Waco, Texas. After they had been under siege by federal authorities for more than 50 days, the Davidians preferred to die in what they thought to be a glorious battle of cosmic significances rather than surrender to, in their eyes, the apocalyptic Beast. Two years later a similar episode took place at the Tokyo subway. Members of the sect Aum Shinrikyo released sarin gas with the intent to kill as many people as possible, cause civil unrest, and, in the long run, trigger a nuclear war and a reset of civilization.

Such shocking and aberrant manifestations of human imagination seem distant, isolated and accidental incidents, both on the vertical of time and on the horizontal of space. They are events that do not happen in our city or in our neighborhood. They do not involve people we know or people we care about. We might even be tempted to think that incidents of this nature will no longer take place in the future. It is as if such manifestations do not have anything to do with us and they are part of the harmless parallel reality encompassed by the media, movies and books. Unfortunately, they are not. They are more frequent than we would like them to be, they are widespread, they are deadly, and they all have one thing in common: the belief in an imminent end of the world.

Religion. For thousands of years this thing has dictated which people should live and which people should die, what shape our buildings should have or what colors our garments should contain, what food people should eat or what words people should speak. If religion is the opium of the masses, then beliefs about the end of the world are like overdoses. People touched by such beliefs no longer rely on a hidden, personal and intimate god, contemplated upon from the safe distance of the beating human heart. They live with the promise of divine intervention at a grand scale on the current coordinates of space and time. This can be an exceptional motivator and a game changer in terms of civil obedience, both at an individual and collective level. In the name of an immediate and palpable deity people can commit shocking cruelties. However, such belief can also account for some of the most exceptional social developments in human history.

Nowadays, theories about the end of the world—unless they are promulgated by scientific authorities and backed by thorough calculations—are associated with insanity, manipulation, and fraud. In the past, however, they were serious business and often driven by the best of intentions. History is filled with Waco-like incidents, but these are little known because they have been overshadowed by greater tragedies. Nevertheless, many, and surprising, elements of contemporary culture owe their existence to apocalyptic manifestations of yesteryear. Some religious and social phenomena that we see as modern, unique and unrepeatable in fact started as accoutrements of apocalypse and, through adaptation to failure, took on a more stable shape.

Apocalyptic phenomenon is part of the larger phenomenon of religion, which in turn is part of the even larger phenomenon of history. Historical events don’t simply happen randomly; each is a consequence of certain causes. Religion and apocalypticism cannot be understood without comprehending the historical context they came from. Every prophecy, prediction or messianism is the product and the precise reflection of the context from which it emerged. Historical context is the key to understanding apocalyptic phenomena because it reveals the true face of miracles: prophecies turn into lies, visions turn into fantasies, entire religious systems prove to be plagiarisms. Reports of the end of the world involve factors from politics to scientific discoveries and, in the course of millennia, they have been announced not only on religious grounds, but also on the basis of history, mathematics, geography, mystical insight, astrology, or astronomy.

Most apocalyptic manifestations that have occurred in the last two millennia have been ignited and fueled by Christianity. Unlike Judaism, which is an elitist religion, destined to be practiced by a small group of chosen people, Christianity (and Islam) has proselytism at its core. Christians are divinely urged to promote their faith through words and actions so that non-Christians follow the example, convert and in turn become an example for other non-Christians. Proselytism has been a phenomenal tool, and empowered Christianity to expand itself exponentially up to the point it came to encompass the most powerful nations of the world, the largest number of followers and the largest geographical coverage, with a focus on Europe and America. Accordingly, this analysis considers the most important events in European history from the 1st century and in American history from the 16th. The cases exposed in this book represent only a fraction of all the apocalyptic manifestations that have emerged in that time, of which no one can say the exact number and not all of which would be of value for our study. Still, the goal of this book is not to enumerate isolated events, but to reveal social and religious mechanisms, and ultimately to offer a clearer view upon the apocalyptic phenomenon in particular and religion in general.

PART ONE - THE FOUNDATIONS OF APOCALYPTICISM

Chapter I - THE FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURE

1.

MEANINGS OF THE EXPRESSION END OF THE WORLD

We read about it in books, we see it in movies, we hear about it on the radio or during religious ceremonies. It is an extremely popular subject. But what exactly is the end of the world?

The expression end of the world may be understood differently, depending on time, place, culture, and religion. The first term, end, signifies disappearance, extinction, destruction or even transformation. The term world might refer to a particular people, to humanity as a whole, to civilization as we know it, a religion such as Christianity or Islam, the planet Earth, or the totality of the universe. Thus, the expression end of the world might mean the transformation of humanity or its extinction, the destruction of Earth or radical alteration of conditions on it, the fall of civilization, the eradication of Christianity, or the transformation of the entire universe.

The idea of the end of the world may arise from two independent sources: empirical observation and divine revelation.

2.

SOURCES OF FATALISTIC BELIEFS

2.1. EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL SOURCE

Will the world ever end? The environment shows us over and over again that nothing lasts forever: plants, animals, insects, humans, rivers, mountains, planets, stars—everything seems to move from nonexistence to existence and back again to nonexistence. It is therefore reasonable to deduce that the world, however we may understand the term, will cease at some point to exist. Still, we humans work, study, invent, build, expand, breed, and help each other. Some are ready to give up their lives for their children, while others prepare themselves expressly for the end of the world—all ultimately to avoid the greatest fear: the failure of the species. The prospect of losing our multi-millennial achievements and disappearing as a species is our worst nightmare, even worse than personal death.

Fear is an important survival mechanism but so is curiosity. People don’t just run from danger; they also actively court it. The end of the world may be scary, but it is also fascinating. It causes stress, but also satisfies certain needs. Knowing how the end will unfold gives people a feeling of control over their own destiny. Like any good fiction, from fairy tales to novels, the prospect of the end can lift a person out of the monotony of the mundane and transpose his spatial and temporal context from ordinary to extraordinary. It makes the individual feel that, by witnessing such an important event, his destiny is not trivial.

Most apocalyptic messages speak about the present or the near future and lend to current events an air of crucial importance. Each generation thinks its problems are the most important ever. As history flows without interruption and doomsday scenarios fail, following generations focus on their own contemporary events, ignoring or downplaying the past. In this way people always see signs in their times and the end of the world is a constantly fresh subject.

The idea of an approaching end is often explained by an alleged worldwide trend towards decadence: the world is decaying, everything is going from bad to worse, nothing is as good as before, people have become worse.¹ The prophet of Zoroastrianism, Zarathustra, laments the continuously decaying times; according to Hinduism the current world is in Kali Yuga, the fourth and most degenerate era; and in the Abrahamic religions God reset mankind through a global flood as a punishment for its corruption. History, however, contradicts this idea of widespread decadence. All religions associate evil with immorality and disorder, and good with morality and order. If humanity has indeed become worse in terms of morality, then this should be reflected in increasing disorder. While it is true that mankind has suffered ups and downs, it is also true that mankind has become increasingly ordered. Perhaps the idea of a universal decline has less to do with the actual decadence of the times and more to do with the decay of those who make such a judgment: older persons who have no idea about history, who are no longer in power and whose future will bring only more weakness and suffering. Any change can only be for the worse because only the days of their youth were promising. A golden age is placed in the past, the decadent present is condemned, and a darker future is imagined.² Everything new is wrong and only what is old is good. Age, or the test of time, is considered a standard of correctness and legitimacy. In this way traditions and absurd beliefs are propagated only because they have a history of hundreds or thousands of years.

2.2. DIVINE MANIFESTATION AS A THEOLOGICAL SOURCE

Religions portray the end of the world as a phase of an ordered destiny, rather than a random event. In fact, religious stories of the end complement and are often integrated with stories of the beginning of the world. Reflecting one of the fundamental dualities of experience—birth and death—they commonly involve other dualities such as order and chaos, good and evil, light and dark. Concurrently they are instruments through which human societies have attempted to create a frame for understanding the passing of time.

In Northern European mythology everything came from chaos, including the gods, which in turn created mankind. But, due to the decadence of the world and the expansion of evil, a final battle between good and evil was expected, following which a new cycle of human existence would begin.

One of Chinese mythology’s several creation stories says that the world was created through the ordering of chaos by the primordial gods. However, one day the dragons that pull the Sun in a cart will get drunk and, since they are unable to pull it anymore, time will stop.

Persian mythology says that the world was created from the battle between the good gods and the evil gods, and at the end of time the world will be purified through a final battle between the two sides.

Noah’s Flood, which is an end of the world event, also represents a purification of the world and was previously told in the Sumero-Akkadian myth of Gilgamesh.³

The Romans believed that civilization had begun with them and would end with them. According to legend, 12 magical vultures sent by the gods revealed to Romulus where to put the foundation of the city of Rome. The Roman calendar had as its starting point the year 1 Ab urbe condita (from the founding of the city) and the vultures were believed to symbolize the 12 saecula (generations) of existence of the city, after which it would be destroyed by the gods.⁴

The disappearance of these civilizations and religions led to a forgetting of their doomsday scenarios. Accordingly, since the 7th century the idea of the world’s end has been disseminated mainly by the Abrahamic religions.

Chapter II - THE THEOLOGICAL AND ESCHATOLOGICAL BASES

1.

THE ABRAHAMIC ESCHATOLOGICAL ROOT

Abraham is considered the father of the major monotheist religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.⁵ According to the Book of Genesis, Abraham was a 10th-generation descendant of Noah, who was in turn a 10th-generation descendant of Adam, who was the first man created by God. A tribal chieftain of the Iron Age, Abraham was urged by God to leave Ur Kaśdim, also known as Ur of the Chaldees, and go to Canaan. In Canaan, Abraham made a covenant with God: in exchange for accepting Yahweh as his only god, Abraham was to be blessed with lands and countless descendants (Genesis 17:2-9), while his name was changed by God from Abram to Abraham, which means father of a multitude of nations (Genesis 17:5).⁶

The origin story of Abraham and his covenant with God is accepted by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which are collectively referred to as the Abrahamic religions and share many similarities.

(1) Monotheism—they praise an exclusive god, known by different names.

(2) Holy texts—they are based on a body of texts considered to be the Word of God, sacred and infallible, the purpose of which is to inform the people about divine will.

(3) An ethical orientation—man must constantly choose between good and evil.

(4) The duality of human existence—a human being consists of a material body that dies and a soul that, remaining alive after death, carries the person’s essence.

(5) Jerusalem—the city is considered a sacred place.

(6) A prophetic tradition—God is guiding mankind through revelations and prophets. However, each religion rejects the revelations and prophets of subsequent religions.

(7) A prophetic agent—each religion has at the core of its doctrine an agent (mediator) who communicated the divine message to the people. Jews believe Moses talked with Yahweh and wrote the Torah. Christians believe God sent Jesus to save mankind and inspired the New Testament writers to tell his story. Muslims believe that Muhammad received the revelation of the Quran from God through Gabriel the Archangel.

(8) A vision of the end (eschatology)—there will be a future moment when divine intervention will stop the course of history.

Eschatology is the branch of theology that studies mankind’s final events—the end of the world and the events related to it. Eschatology is not a special feature of the Abrahamic religions. Any religion that speaks about the end of the world has its own eschatology.

Each Abrahamic eschatology was born together with the religion it is a part of, and each of the three religions developed its own eschatological scenario. Judaism and Jewish eschatology appeared first, sometime in the Bronze Age. In the 1st century AD Christianity formed its eschatology in part from the Jewish doctrine. And six centuries later Islamic eschatology further elaborated Christian and Jewish ideas. Due to the similarities and cultural clashes that have taken place over centuries, numerous apocalyptic Christian theories refer to the nature and evolution of the other two religions. Therefore, knowing the tenets of the three religions and of their eschatologies is vital for understanding Christian apocalypticism.

2.

JEWISH ESCHATOLOGY

2.1. THE BASIC ELEMENTS: THE SCRIPTURES AND YAHWEH

Judaism is based on the Jewish scripture, the Tanakh, which is formed from the writings of Moses, the writings of the prophets, and the psalmists and other canonized texts. Tanakh is a Hebrew acronym consisting of the initials of its main subdivisions: Torah (Teachings), Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings)—TaNaKh. The Tanakh is complemented by the Mishnah, a collection of oral traditions, and the Gemara, commentary on the Mishnah. Together they form the Talmud.⁷

Judaism is monotheistic. God is unique, invisible, non-physical, non-corporeal and eternal. The Jewish scriptures refer to the Supreme Being in many ways: Yahweh (Yahve, Iahve), Elohim, Adonai, Shekhinah or Zebaoth. The first name is the most frequently used.⁸ Yahweh is the personal name of the one and true god, who spoke with Abraham and Moses, freed the people of Israel from Egypt, gave the Ten Commandments, and revealed himself countless times. The most common and simplest description of Yahweh enumerates his features of omnipotence (absolute power), omniscience (absolute knowledge) and omnibenevolence (absolute goodness).⁹

The Jewish creed says that Judaism is the one true form of worship, received by Moses from Yahweh. Of all the nations of the world, the people of Israel were chosen by Yahweh to receive spiritual and material gifts. Israel’s place is in the land of Canaan, the strip of land the Israelites conquered with the help of Yahweh. At the heart of this land is the holy city of Jerusalem. Inside Jerusalem lay Solomon’s Temple, where priests brought animal sacrifices honoring Yahweh. Finally, inside the Temple lay the Ark of the Covenant, containing the tablets on which God wrote the Ten Commandments—tangible proof that the Hebrew people had a special destiny. Palestine, Jerusalem, Solomon’s Temple, and the Ark of the Covenant are central to Jewish eschatology and the fate of the Jewish people. Each of these had a major role in Jewish history and each is expected to have an important role in mankind’s evolution toward the end of the world.

2.2. THE CENTRAL POINT OF JEWISH ESCHATOLOGY: THE COMING OF THE MESSIAH

Jewish eschatology revolves around a single future event—the coming of the Messiah.¹⁰ The term messiah (a Romanization of the Hebrew mashiah) has had a wide range of meanings, but Jewish scripture applies it only to priests that have been anointed with oil according to Exodus 30:22-33. Messiah literally means to be covered with oil. Judaic eschatology portrays the Messiah as a future Jewish king who will rule the entire world at the end of time and who will start the Messianic Age—a period of unprecedented prosperity.¹¹

The Messiah concept was born out of the captivity of the Hebrews in Egypt and the prophetic advent of Moses. Moses prophesied the coming of the Messiah but, by freeing the Israelites and leading them to Canaan, himself became a role model and precursor. The Israelites came to envision the Messiah as a leader who, like Moses, would rise from among the people, seize political power, free Israel from foreign domination, and bring them to the height of prosperity.

The messianic model started by Moses was further confirmed by Cyrus the Great, the king of Persia. Cyrus was not a Jew, but he acted towards Jews in a favorable way. After he conquered the Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, like Moses, Cyrus freed the Jews from captivity and allowed them to return to Canaan and rebuild Solomon’s Temple, which had been destroyed by the Babylonians (Isaiah 45, Ezra 1:1-4, 2, 4-5; 2 Chronicles 36:22-23; Daniel 9:1-2).

The moment of the coming of the Messiah is a divine secret (Daniel 12:9) and any attempt to determine it is a sin.¹² Nevertheless, every time they have passed through dark and troubled times the Jewish people have turned their hopes and expectations toward the promised savior. For example, during Roman domination there was an upsurge of individuals eager to assume the role of the Messiah. Beside the well-known Jesus Christ, the status quo also was challenged by, among others, Judas of Galilee and Theudas, both spoken of in the New Testament.¹³ The destruction of the Holy Temple and the diaspora of the Hebrew people were due to messianic movements. In 66 AD Menahem led a rebellion that expelled the Romans from Jerusalem. Four years later General Titus launched a counteroffensive that ended with destruction of most of the city, including the Second Temple.¹⁴ The uprising of Simon bar Kokhba in 132 AD led to the removal of the Romans from Jerusalem for three years. In retaliation, the Romans under Hadrian slaughtered over half a million insurgents, destroyed Jewish objects of worship, executed priests, banned the Jews from entering Jerusalem, scattering them throughout the empire, and renamed the province Palestine (from Philistia, the traditional enemy of the Israelites).¹⁵

2.3. SIGNS OF THE END

The events and entities which precede the coming of the Messiah are frequently called signs of the times, but also signs of the end. These signs are described in several places in the Jewish scripture, but it is not always clear if they refer to past or future events. The Judaic image of the Messiah contains accretions from the divine inspiration of Moses, the military skills of David and Cyrus, and the political and economic ingenuity of Solomon. Most of the details about the Messiah and his reign are found in the Tanakh—he will be a descendant of King David (Isaiah 11:1) and King Solomon (1 Chronicles 22:8-10); all the Israelites will come back to their homeland (Isaiah 11:12); death, famine and disease will be eradicated (Isaiah 25:8); the dead will be resurrected (Isaiah 26:19); the Jews will spiritually guide all people (Zechariah 8:23); the entire world will honor Yahweh (Isaiah 2:17); the ruined cities of Israel will be rebuilt (Ezekiel 16:55); the Holy Temple will be rebuilt and animal sacrifices resumed (Ezekiel 40); and, the land will become abundant and prosperous (Ezekiel 36:29-30).

The 7th-century apocryphal Jewish text Sefer Zerubbabel (the Apocalypse of Zerubbabel) speaks about Armilus, a false king who torments the Jewish people at the end of times and is killed by the Messiah.¹⁶ Armilus, presented as the offspring of Satan and a virgin, was supposed to be killed by the Messiah in a final battle in 1058 AD, after which the Messianic Age was to be established.¹⁷

2.4. LIFE AFTER THE END

The term Olam Ha-Ba in Judaism, commonly translated as the world to come, refers both to the Messianic Age—the reign of the Messiah—and to a spiritual life after death. Jewish tradition says that, until the coming of the Messiah and the resurrection of the bodies, the souls of the dead have a spiritual existence in the Garden of Eden or a place of cleansing like the Purgatory of Christianity. The Messianic Age will merge the spiritual and material realms, the righteous will be resurrected, and people will be able to communicate with Yahweh.

Kabbalah teaches the transmigration of souls—a kind of reincarnation that is neither automatic nor a punishment for sin as is depicted in some Eastern ideologies. It rather focuses on the individual process of atonement. Each Jewish soul is reincarnated until it fulfills all the moral principles indicated in the Torah.¹⁸ Likewise, the souls of non-Jews are assisted by the transmigratory cycle to fulfill the Seven Laws of Noah and thereby become righteous.¹⁹ The cycles of the soul are an expression of divine compassion in that they provide a new chance of redemption.

According to the medieval scholar Isaac Luria, at the beginning of Creation Yahweh’s emanations flowed through all possible worlds until they finally manifested in the lowest, our physical world, as divine sparks. Divine revelations in the form of scriptures are meant to guide each spark (human soul) in its journey to reunification with its original source (Yahweh). When all the sparks have drawn close enough to Yahweh the Messianic Age will begin. Thus, Jewish theology grants cosmic meaning and importance to each individual life, because every single one of us has tasks that only he can accomplish. Taking place in the material world, the Messianic Age represents the fulfillment of the purpose of its creation.²⁰

3.

CHRISTIAN ESCHATOLOGY

3.1. THE BASIC ELEMENTS: THE BIBLE AND THE TRINITY

Christianity arose in 1st century Roman Judea following the life, death, and reported resurrection of a man called Jesus Christ. Jesus and his followers, all Jews, at first were understood by themselves and others to be practicing Judaism. Later, as Christianity became distinct from Judaism, it retained much from its Judaic background and ever after remained entwined with the older religion. The Tanakh became incorporated, in various arrangements, in all Christian scripture and Christians became spiritual descendants of Abraham.

The holy book of Christianity was organized in 363 AD at the Council of Laodicea. There, all available Christian texts were sorted into two categories—canonical texts, which were read in church and meant to be obeyed as the word of God, and apocryphal texts, which were considered helpful for moral uplift but not inspired by God. All the writings declared canonical were gathered into a single book generically called the Bible (from the Greek biblos—book) or The Holy Scriptures.

The Bible is divided into two parts. The first part, the Old Testament, is largely composed of the Jewish Tanakh. The second part, the New Testament, contains four accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus (the gospels), a narrative of the works of the apostles of Jesus (Acts of the Apostles), letters written by the apostles (the epistles), and a book of prophetic writing (Revelation). From a Christian perspective, the relation between the two testaments is one of completion and subordination. Since Christ is believed to be the Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, his teachings are held to both complete and supersede Mosaic Law. Similarly, Christianity is held to complete and supersede Judaism as a New Israel. The same relationship is claimed between the old covenant made by God with the Jewish people through Moses and the new covenant made by God with all of humanity through Jesus Christ.

Jesus Christ is the key figure in the Bible. The Old Testament announces his coming,²¹ while the New Testament reveals his life and teachings. Throughout the New Testament, Jesus is variously called Son of God, Messiah, Savior, or Lord. The texts of the New Testament were written mainly in Greek²² and the name Jesus is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Joshua, which means the Lord saves (Matthew 1:21). The word Christ, which was originally more a title than a name, comes from Christós, the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew Messiah. It is the root of the word Christian, meaning one who believes in Christ’s teachings, and Christianity, a term for all the denominations that base their doctrines on the person and teachings of Jesus Christ.

Christians believe that God incarnated in the person of Jesus, led a life without sin, died for the redemption of the world, resurrected after three days, and ascended into Heaven. Jesus is said now to be seated at the right hand of the Father (Matthew 22:44) and to have promised to return to earth for a second coming. Christians pray to Jesus, worship Jesus, and follow his teachings because this is believed to be the path to salvation.

The three features of the Supreme Being from Judaism have been partially adopted by Christianity, with the feature of omnibenevolence being replaced by that of omnipresence (God is present everywhere and is part of all that exists). Therefore, Christianity describes the Supreme Being as omnipotent, omnipresent, and omniscient. Christianity proclaims itself a monotheistic religion, but the portrayal of Jesus as both God and Son of God has caused disputes inside and outside the church. The widely accepted solution to this quandary was formulated in the doctrine of the Trinity (Latin: trinitas—triad) established at the ecumenical councils of Nicaea (325 AD) and Constantinople (381 AD). It asserts that God is a single entity, a oneness, unique in its nature, but manifest in three divine persons: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit.²³ Since its promulgation in the 4th century, this image of God has remained virtually unchanged.²⁴

3.2. THE CENTRAL POINT OF CHRISTIAN ESCHATOLOGY: THE SECOND COMING OF JESUS CHRIST

Most Christian doctrine was conceived during the dark times of Roman persecution and the Middle Ages, and depicts a human order deeply and hopelessly wrong, decadent, and beyond human powers of correction.

According to the Book of Genesis, the current order was born out of sin. When Adam and Eve, the primordial couple, disobeyed God and ate of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, they committed a sin and were banished from Paradise to the earth. Ever since, human life has been a scene of ceaseless conflict between good and evil as the world decays and moves toward destruction. But God, because he loves his creation, has designed a plan for saving mankind. The first step was made through Abraham, Moses, and the adoption of the Hebrews as the chosen people. The second step was made through the incarnation of Jesus and the establishment of the Church. The third step will be made in the future through the Second Coming of Christ, and the fourth and final step will be achieved through the destruction and reconstruction of the world.

The Second Coming of Christ, also called the Parousia (from the Greek for coming or (visible) presence), does not bring the destruction of the world, but instead its radical transformation. Jesus will descend from heaven to put an end to the current human order and start a new world order called the Millennium.

In the gospels Jesus makes no distinction between his Second Coming and the end of the world, referring to both by the phrase the end times. Hence, some Christians believe that the end of the world and the Parousia are one and the same thing. However, according to the Book of Revelation the end of the world consists of several sub-events. It starts with the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, victory over the Beast (Revelation 19), and the establishment of the Millennial Kingdom. The Dragon is bound prior to the Millennium (1,000 years), then unleashed to deceive the nations, which will turn against God. Following the Battle of Armageddon, the Last Judgment will take place (Revelation 20), and finally the old world will be replaced with a new heaven and a new earth that will last forever (Revelation 21).

As in Judaism, the moment when these events will commence is a divine secret and attempts to determine it are declared futile: But of that day and hour knoweth no one, not even the angels of heaven, neither the Son, but the Father only (Matthew 24:36). The Bible does state that Jesus will return in the same manner as when he ascended into Heaven from the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem (Acts 1:9-11).

3.3. SIGNS OF THE END

The Apocalypse of John, usually referred to as Revelation, is the last and the only entirely prophetic book of the New Testament. It describes the end of the world and is believed to have been written toward the end of the 1st century during heavy Roman persecution. The scribe of the book is traditionally identified with John the Apostle, while the revelator is said to be Jesus Christ (Revelation 1:11, 17-18).

The word apocalypse comes from the Greek apokalýptein, in the New Testament almost always meaning to uncover what was hidden or to reveal.²⁵ Thus, the name of the book denotes its main theme and purpose—mystical description of the future (Revelation 1:1). In common parlance the word apocalypse is synonymous with disaster. More narrowly, it is used to refer to the series of events described in the Book of Revelation that bring about the end of the world.

The events and entities which precede the onset of the Apocalypse are most frequently called signs of the times, but also signs of the end. These signs are described in several other books of the New Testament beside the Book of Revelation and include lawlessness and immorality, widespread deception, famine, disease, wars, and disruptions of the natural world. Their purpose is to remind and warn mankind to be ready for the end of the age.

While the prophetic texts refer to many events in general terms, others are described in more detail. Prominent among those more specifically described are the Antichrist (Revelation 13), Babylon the Great (Revelation 17-18) or the Millennium (Revelation 20).

According to the dominant Christian view, toward the end of time mankind will undergo a process of unprecedented decadence, which will culminate with the rise of the Antichrist, the supreme tyrant. Sin will be so pervasive in human society that divine intervention—the Second Coming of Christ—will be necessary to re-establish order and save the world from obliteration.

The Antichrist seems to be an elevated copy of the Jewish evil entity Armilus. Nevertheless, his dreadful darkness, the major role he will play in the closure of history and especially the number 666 as a clue to his identity (Revelation 13:18) have inflamed the imagination of Christians and fueled endless speculation.

The Antichrist is a creation of Lucifer (2 Thessalonians 2:9), the fallen archangel who rebelled against God at the beginning of time. His emergence precedes the Second Coming of Christ, by whom he is to be defeated. The purpose of the Antichrist is to deny God’s authority, to convince mankind to embrace sin and to set himself up as the only divine and mundane authority. While Jesus Christ won the world through love and free will, the Antichrist will subdue it through fear and coercion (Revelation 13:15-16). As God the Father sent God the Son to save the world through sacrifice and truth, Lucifer will send the Antichrist to destroy the world through selfishness and deceit (John 8:44-45). While Christ came to represent God, the Antichrist will represent only himself (John 5:43).

The term antichrist appears in both singular and plural forms (1 John 2:18-22). When capitalized, it appears only in the singular and designates the unique entity described in detail in Revelation 13—the Beast, elsewhere called the Son of Perdition and the Man of Sin (2 Thessalonians 2:3). It is believed that the Antichrist will imitate Christ and be a man of global influence.

In its lower case singular or plural forms, antichrist is a generic term for anyone or anything that denies the divinity or works in opposition to the salvific power of Jesus Christ. Throughout history lower case antichrists have been identified in myriad political and religious beliefs, countries, and organizations, as well as individuals.

The advent of the Antichrist is closely related to the apocalyptic signs of the apostasy and the great tribulation. The apostasy (from the Latin apostasia—desertion), refers to an unprecedented period of moral degradation characterized by indifference toward religious precepts, selfishness, excess in eating and drinking, the perpetuation of injustice, idolatry, and other sinful practices. It is not clear whether the apostasy is a product of the Antichrist’s actions or develops beforehand and facilitates his advent. Similarly, the great tribulation refers to a period during which mankind will experience the most extreme conditions of danger and deprivation: for then shall be great tribulation, such as hath not been from the beginning of the world until now, no, nor ever shall be (Matthew 24:21). The great tribulation is believed to refer to the Antichrist’s reign. In any case, lacking a spatial-temporal reference, opinions regarding the apostasy and the great tribulation have varied over time, with their image often used as a propagandistic tool.

Babylon the Great, Mystery Babylon, or the Whore of Babylon, is an allegorical figure of evil mentioned in chapters 17 and 18 of the Book of Revelation. Babylon the Great stirs the interest of exegetes because she is in close relationship with the Antichrist, who is said to carrieth her (Revelation 17:7). Mystery Babylon is presumably a city or kingdom like the historical Babylon of the Old Testament (Isaiah 13:19, 21:9; Jeremiah 25:12-17). She has global influence and makes all the nations to drink of the wine of the wrath of her fornication (Revelation 14:8). And, given she may be known by the seven mountains, on which the woman sitteth (Revelation 17:9), several cities and kingdoms have been identified with apocalyptic Babylon throughout history.

Millennialism²⁶ is the belief in a golden age of 1,000 years during which Christ will reign over all the earth. The Millennium is repeatedly mentioned in Revelation 20, for example in verses 4-5: and they lived, and reigned with Christ a thousand years. The rest of the dead lived not until the thousand years should be finished.²⁷ There are three different views regarding the establishment of the Millennium—premillennialism, postmillennialism, and amillennialism.

Premillennialism states that the Second Coming precedes the Millennium. The latter is established ex abrupto, through a revolutionary process that interrupts the chain of natural and historical causalities. The transformation is the exclusive outcome of divine intervention and human actions have no influence over it. The Millennium will bring the resurrection of the dead, unprecedented prosperity in human society and harmony in nature such that deserts will flourish and wild beasts become tame. Evil will be quenched through the power and goodness of Christ and believers will be revived in glorified bodies. Despite these ideal conditions, however, some people will not be satisfied and will launch one final rebellion against God and his adherents. This final manifestation of evil will be suppressed by Christ and then the Last Judgment will begin.

Postmillennialism considers that the Second Coming will occur after or post the Millennium, not necessarily at the end of it, but rather after its beginning. The Millennium itself is believed to come about through the work of the Church, with Christ reigning in Heaven and human effort leading to religious awakening and social reform. As the world converts to Christianity an environment of general peace and prosperity emerges. This conception assumes a linear evolution and historical continuity leading up to the Second Coming. Thus, the return of Christ is conditioned by earthly events and the progress of humanity. The transition from the old order to the new will take place almost imperceptibly. Evil will not be eliminated, but it will be greatly diminished. The Millennium may last virtually any length of time, rather than a literal thousand years, but still will lead to Armageddon, the resurrection of the dead, and the Last Judgment.

Finally, amillennialism denies the Millennium completely, considering it either a metaphor for the evolution of the Church or an imitation of the Jewish Messianic Age. Evil and good will coexist until Parousia, when the dead will be revived, and Final Judgment will begin.

3.4. LIFE AFTER THE END

The Kingdom of God refers to both Heaven (Paradise), the place where people go after death, and the Church, the community of believers that accedes to Christ’s teachings.

The Church is not an ecclesiastical institution organized in ranks and material constructions (namely the church), but a group of people who adopted Christian principles and ideas. The Church was established by Jesus Christ, and ever since it has evolved in accordance with the progressive revelation of God. If the existence of a future Millennium is accepted, then the Kingdom of God goes through three stages:

(1) The temporal stage—delimited by the First and the Second Coming.

(2) The intermediary stage—during the Millennium.

(3) The eternal stage—which starts after the Last Judgment, the revealing of the new earth and new heaven, and will last forever.

From the Ascension until Parousia, Christians live within the temporal stage of the Kingdom of God, that is the Church. In the eternal stage, when the current world will be replaced with the new heaven and new earth, the Church and the Kingdom of God will be one and the same with Paradise (Eden, Heaven). Upon the revealing of the new earth and heaven, the second resurrection will operate (the first one takes place at Parousia), and humans will pass to the asexual non-corporeal state of existence of the angels: For in the resurrection they neither marry, nor are given in marriage, but are as angels in heaven (Matthew 22:30).

4.

ISLAMIC ESCHATOLOGY

4.1. THE BASIC ELEMENTS: THE QURAN AND ALLAH

The word Islam comes from the Arabic word salama (to obey), which is also the root for the word Muslim, which means the one who received Islam. Muslims refer to Jews, Christians, and themselves as the people of the book because the three religions are based on texts of divine origin. The sacred book of Islam is the Quran (which means reading or reciting), which is composed of 114 suras (a sort of chapter). The Quran contains the revelations given by Allah to Muhammad through Gabriel the Archangel beginning in the year 610, first in the city of Mecca, and then later in Medina.

According to Muslims, Islam is the faith revealed through all the prophets of the Abrahamic religions, including Adam (the first man), Noah, Abraham, Moses, King David, Jesus, and Muhammad.²⁸ The latter, who is considered the most significant of the prophets, is believed to have descended from Abraham through Ishmael, son of the handmaiden Hagar.

Islam acknowledges the divine inspiration of both the Jewish and Christian scriptures, and also the major religious roles of Moses and Jesus Christ. However, the sacred texts of the Jews and the Christians are believed to have been wrongly interpreted and distorted by believers, both accidentally and intentionally. The Quran is the correction of the mistakes made by the others, the Last Testament revealed through the final prophet. Muhammad is called the Seal of the Prophets, the last in a series of over 1,000 according to tradition, while Islam is the final and perfect monotheistic faith (Quran 5:3). The original Arabic text of the Quran is considered pure and holy to the last letter. Any translation of the Quran is viewed as a mere paraphrasing and only the original is divine scripture.²⁹ Moreover, the Quran is complemented by hadiths—conversations and speeches of Muhammad that help scholars interpret and apply the quranic precepts.

Allah (the Arab word for God) is the supreme and only deity, is not manifested in a Holy Trinity, and does not have a Son (Quran 112:1).³⁰ Yahweh and God the Father are one and the same with Allah, and the idea of the Trinity is seen as a form of polytheism (Quran 3:59). The Holy Spirit, a very abstract concept in Christianity, is identified in Islam as Gabriel the Archangel. Jesus—known in Islam by the name of Isa—is considered to be a prophet superior to his predecessors, but no more divine than any other. He was neither crucified nor resurrected. Instead, he was raised to Heaven by Allah (Quran 4:155-158).³¹

4.2. THE CENTRAL POINT OF ISLAMIC ESCHATOLOGY: JUDGMENT DAY

Islamic eschatology copies its Christian predecessor to a great extent but differs in its focus. While the central point of Christian eschatology is the Second Coming of Christ, Islamic eschatology revolves around Judgment Day.

The Quran uses 19 different names to designate Judgment Day or the end of the world, including Day of Gathering, Day of Resurrection, and Day of Reckoning. Islam teaches the resurrection of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for the world, and the immortality of the human soul. At Judgment the righteous will be rewarded with the pleasures of Heaven, while the wicked will be punished in Hell. About a third of the Quran consists of eschatological beliefs, and these are complemented by many hadiths.

Islamic eschatology speaks about the last days as a period of trial when people will endure anarchy and chaos in order to prove their love for Allah. There are 10 signs that will precede the end: smoke for 40 days, the appearance of the antichrist al-Dajjal, a gigantic Beast that will rise from earth, the Sun rising in the west, the descent of Jesus to affirm Islam, the invasion of Gog and Magog, three massive landslides, and a fire that will come out of Yemen and drive people toward the place of final gathering (Sahih Muslim 6931). As in the other two Abrahamic religions, the exact time of the end is a secret known only to Allah (Quran 33:63; Sahih Al-Bukhari 1:47).

4.3. SIGNS OF THE END

Like Christians, Muslims expect the advent of the Antichrist, whom they name the Great Deceiver or the Impostor Messiah (Al-Masikh al-Dajjal). The Arabic word dajjal means to deceive and it is used in religious contexts to designate false prophets or messiahs. Muhammad said that there will be around 30 dajjals or antichrists (Sahih Al-Bukhari 9:237), of which Al-Masikh al-Dajjal will be the last and most powerful. He will defy Allah, speaking beautifully but presenting a false interpretation of the scriptures, and will fool the world into believing that Hell is Heaven and Heaven is Hell (Sahih Al-Bukhari 4:554). He will pretend to be the Jewish messiah and the returned Jesus Christ, but the real Jesus will descend from heaven and kill him (Sahih Muslim 7023).

Al-Dajjal will appear somewhere between Syria and Iraq and travel the entire world preaching his false teachings. Allah, however, will not let him enter Mecca and Medina (Sahih Al-Bukhari 3:105). The hadiths say that he will have a damaged right eye, curly hair (Sahih Al-Bukhari 4:649), something wrong with his legs, and written on his forehead will be the word Kafir, meaning disbeliever (Sahih Muslim 7008). Al-Dajjal will form a triad with Sufyani, who corresponds to the False Prophet in Revelation 13:11-14, and another figure named Yamani. He will initially pretend that he is a prophet sent by Allah but, when he has gained enough power and many followers, he will declare his own divinity. He will be able to create illusory experiences of hellfire and paradise and people who refuse him will be forced to enter the hellfire. He will gather an army of the deceived and lead them in a war against Muslims.

The advent of al-Dajjal will be preceded by the following signs: the spread of disbelief and its approval as a virtue, the spread of dishonesty, the abandonment of faith for the sake of material gain, the legitimation of bribery and usury, the spread of stupidity and wielding of power by fools to the detriment of the wise, the spread of corruption among leaders, wars and riots that shed innocent blood, widespread hypocrisy, acceptance of adultery, women dressing as men and men as women, elevation in respect of liars and cheaters, and an acute famine at the moment of his advent.³²

It is not clear where the power of al-Dajjal comes from, whether he is a creation of the devil (Satan) or not. In Islam Satan is the parent of demons and was made by Allah from smokeless fire. When Allah created Adam, Satan refused to prostrate to him because Adam was made of clay. Due to this act of rebellion, Allah expelled Satan from Eden, but the latter asked the Creator for a stay of execution, an extension of his life until Judgment Day, when he will be destroyed.³³

Unlike Christian and Jewish eschatologies, which are populated by a single messianic figure, in Islam there are two—the Mahdi and Isa (Jesus, the son of Mary).

The Mahdi (or Mehdi—the Guided One) is a reinvention of the Jewish Messiah. Not explicitly mentioned in the Quran or in Sunni hadiths such as the famous Sahih Al-Bukhari, the concept of the Mahdi is accepted by Shia Muslims but largely rejected by Sunnis.³⁴ He will be a direct descendant of Muhammad through Fatimah, the prophet’s daughter. The Mahdi’s name will be Muhammad and his father’s name will be Abdullah, which means Allah’s servant (Sunan Abi Dawud 4279-4290—Kitab al-Mahdi).

The Mahdi will be simple and handsome, will fight for the cause of Islam, and will fill the world with justice at a time when there will be oppression and corruption. He will appear in a year divisible by 2, announcing his presence in the city of Mecca and urging the people to show him loyalty. Then he will go to Kufa in Iraq, from where he will rule for 7, 9, or 19 years. The signs that foreshadow the coming of the Mahdi are the following: Arab independence from foreign interference, the eruption of great conflict and destruction in Syria and Iraq, a fire in the sky of Iraq that covers the country in redness, the rise of a black flag, both a lunar and a solar eclipse in the same month of Ramadan, a star with a glowing tail rising in the east, the image of the Mahdi appearing on the Moon, the growth of murders, the complete ruination of large cities, and a polarization of wealth toward the few and famine for the many.³⁵

During the reign of the Mahdi, defender of Muslims, al-Dajjal will gather an army to attack them, leading to a final battle similar to the Christian Armageddon (Sunan Abi Dawud 4291-4350—Kitab al-Malahim). In the midst of this battle, Isa will descend from heaven east of Damascus on the wings of two angels, dressed in yellow clothes and with his head anointed. He will join the forces of the Mahdi and will kill al-Dajjal. Isa will proclaim the truth of Islam, all the people of the book (Christians and Jews) will believe in him, and for the first time there will be a single worldwide religious community.

After the death of the Mahdi, the circumstances of which are not clear, Jesus will take the role of supreme leader. From this moment a period of 40 years of peace and prosperity will begin. During this period two ancient tribes, Gog and Magog, will spread and create disorder on the face of the earth. Jesus will pray to Allah, who will destroy them with a sort of worm in their necks. Jesus will die after 40 years and be buried in Medina, close to Muhammad’s grave.³⁶ This will be followed by the rising of the sun in the west, the appearance of the Beast, and the gathering of the people for final judgment.

4.4. LIFE AFTER THE END

According to Islamic teachings, Allah is the most compassionate and merciful (Quran 1:1), but also the most just. Every person, Muslim or non-Muslim, will be held responsible for each action and word enacted in life (Quran 74:38).

Israfil the Archangel will blow a horn and the dead will be resurrected, led forth from the grave by Muhammad.³⁷ All mankind will assemble in front of Allah for Judgment (Quran 64:9), the book of life will be opened, and each person will be called to account for his deeds (Quran 54:52-53). The Judgment will consist of balancing good deeds and sins. If a person has more good deeds than sins, then he will enter Paradise. If not, he will be sent to Hell (Quran 2:81-82). Sins that condemn a person to Hell no matter the number of good deeds include lying, dishonesty, corruption, ignoring Allah’s revelation (Quran 9:63), denying the resurrection, refusal to feed the poor, self-delectation with riches and ostentation, economic exploitation of others, and social oppression.

The punishments in Hell include pain, very powerful torture (Quran 29:55; 43:48), and disgrace (Quran 16:27; 11:39). Paradise, on the other hand, is a place of blissful happiness. Like Hell, it is divided into levels. The highest levels are reserved for the most virtuous: prophets, martyrs, those who helped orphans, those who never told a lie, and many other categories mentioned in the Quran and hadiths. Paradise is sometimes described as an incredibly beautiful garden or park, with crystalline rivers and bountiful food of every kind. While believers can enjoy physical pleasures in Paradise, the greatest joy it offers is the divine grace of closeness to Allah (Quran 9:72).³⁸

Chapter III - PATTERNS OF APOCALYPTIC MANIFESTATIONS

1.

MESSIANISM

In the light of the concepts, structure and religious ideas promoted by the three great Abrahamic religions, the end of the world can be announced in two ways: messianically and prophetically. In addition to these, the end can be determined or announced from a secular (scientific) point of view through the means of prediction. Together, when they refer to the end of the world, messianism, prophetism and predictionism are generically called apocalyptic manifestations.

From the Abrahamic point of view, the proclamation of the Messiah, or the assignation of the title of messiah to an individual, automatically involves the proclamation of the imminent end of the world. Jews expect the Messiah to bring the Messianic Age, Christians believe that Jesus Christ will bring the Millennium or Judgment Day, while Muslims believe that Isa will establish an era of peace and prosperity. In all cases, the Messiah can only be one (or two individuals in the case of Shia Islam). Hence, all other false messianic manifestations are generically called messianisms.

Belief in the advent of a savior with supernatural powers who dramatically alters the course of history is not an exclusive feature of the Abrahamic religions. Almost all religions state the existence of a superior being that must come to fulfill a divine and global mission. In Buddhism, Maitreya is an illuminated being that will reintroduce pure dharma (the universal law of nature and the path to illumination) to the world. He will be a successor of the historical Shakyamuni Buddha, the founder of the Buddhist religion, and will reveal himself at a time of great trial, when the teachings of Buddhism will be about to be abandoned.³⁹

In Hinduism, Kalki (which means the Destroyer of Evil or the Annihilator of Ignorance) is the tenth and the last Great Incarnation of Vishnu, the supreme god in the Vaishnavite tradition. Kalki will come to put an end to the present era of darkness and destruction dominated by the male demon Kali. Kalki is also perceived as a metaphor for the eternity of time, while the end of the world is seen as a depletion of an era and the start of a new one, in an endlessly repeating cycle.⁴⁰

In Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism), the ancient religion of Persia, Saoshyant (which means the Benefactor) is the empowered messenger of Ahura Mazda, the supreme deity. Saoshyant will show himself at the end of times to fight with the forces of evil. In the final battle the gods Airyman and Atar will lead a river-like army, but the righteous will not be touched. Ahura Mazda will triumph through his agent Saoshyant, who will resurrect the dead and clean their souls for being reunited with the divinity. Time will end and truth, justice and immortality will endure forever.⁴¹

Throughout history the concept of the messiah has been hijacked countless times by ordinary people in order to gain advantages. Characterized by charisma, alleged supernatural powers and popularity among those without education, messiahs have used an altruistic message of salvation to feed their selfish need of being worshiped. Like political dictators, messiahs suffer from personality disorders such as sadism, paranoia, narcissism, and anti-social behavior. Haunted by a traumatizing childhood, they take revenge on the world that rejected them, made them feel small and insignificant and caused them suffering. Accordingly, they preach separation from a degenerate society, while at the same time depicting themselves as important people, divine messengers, and spiritual saviors.

Messianic manifestations usually rise at times of great distress: disasters, wars, famine, pandemics, or so-called apostasy. Frightened people become attracted to eccentric leaders and this is how apocalyptic expectations can bring remarkable powers to unremarkable people. Messiahs easily gain the hearts and minds of others by stimulating instincts and emotions, never logic and reason. In public they take the image of victims, but in private they behave like tyrants. Some aspects related to their person can easily be perceived as miracles by their devotees, while the horrible sins they commit are conveniently absolved by their divine mission. In this way, messiahs permanently have an immaculate image.

Messiahs always challenge the established order, be it religious or political. Accordingly, they build their cult of personality in remote areas or behind closed doors, hiding from authorities. But, because their image is based on lies and temporary euphoria, messianic manifestations are short-lived. They often end in bloodshed caused by mass suicide or a clash with the decayed society.

2.

PROPHECY

Prophecy refers to the process of receiving information about the future through divine revelation. The receptor of the prophecy is called a prophet, and his role is to share this received knowledge with others. Divine revelation can occur inside the prophet’s being, through dreams or visions inspired by divinity. It can also occur outside the prophet’s being, when divinity reveals itself through extraordinary sensory occurrences—angels, signs in the environment, and embodiment of supernatural entities—that can be observed by other individuals, non-prophets, as well.

A prophecy is revealed independently from the will of the individual and exclusively due to divine will. So, every prophecy can basically be categorized as a miracle. Prophets are ordinary men who have no intention of seeing the future, they do not use methods to explore unknown dimensions and they do not search for signs in the environment. Prophets cannot choose the setting (the time and the place) in which they are going to experience revelations. They see the future because God wants to use them as channels of communication between him and the world. In the Bible there are numerous examples of prophets and prophecies: Isaiah announces Christ’s incarnation 700 years in advance (Isaiah 7:14); Daniel speaks about the fate of the Babylonian, Medo-Persian, Greek-Macedonian and Roman Empires (Daniel 2; 7-8; 9-12); and John experiences divine revelations whereupon he writes the Book of Revelation, which is a long line of prophecies.

Contrary to popular opinion, the so-called gift of prophecy (or the gift of premonition⁴²) does not exist. A prophecy is not the result of a prophetic ability or a method of supernatural interrogation, but of an involuntary communication with God. Prophets do not have a gift (ability) to see the future, but only possess information about the future that is given to them by God. God is infinitely stronger than man, and therefore communication between man and God depends solely on the will of the latter. The idea that man can see the future through different methods or practices is rooted in the confusion between prophecy and prevision, and between divine revelation and divination respectively. If there is indeed a gift of prophecy, this means that divinity can be compelled to automatically respond with miracles when man performs a certain ritual, which is absurd.

Divination (Latin: divinare—to foresee, to be inspired by God) is that part of mysticism which refers to the attempt to achieve knowledge about the past, present or future by using a certain ritual or process. Divination has been practiced since ancient times and has constantly evolved. It aims to explain the environment when rational means fail to do so. The diviner (or seer) spends time and energy studying books of magic, reading signs in the environment, or interrogating supernatural entities. He relies on the belief that there is a magical and unknown connection between different realms of existence, which he can explore and from within which he can extract information about the current one. The act of divination is sometimes accompanied by the consumption of hallucinogenic substances or the use of instruments, such as a crystal ball or a pendulum—all meant to induce the individual into a sort of a trance, a state of semi-consciousness in which hallucinations blend with reality. Ancient people were obsessed with divination; the Romans, the Greeks or the Egyptians practiced scatomancy (reading the shape of excrement), geomancy (reading the shape of soil), hydromancy (reading the shape of water), alomancy (reading