Stimulating Student Interest in Language Learning: Theory, Research and Practice

By Tan Bee Tin

This book explores the issues and concerns many language teachers have in not just helping able students to learn a foreign or second language but more importantly how to get reluctant learners to become interested in language learning. Tin proposes ‘interest’ as an important construct that requires investigation if we are to understand second language learning experiences in a modern globalised world. The book offers both theoretical explorations and empirical findings arising from the author’s own research in the field. Chapters demonstrate how various theoretical and empirical findings can be applied to practice so as to raise the awareness of the importance of interest in language learning and teaching. For teacher trainers and educators, researchers, and practising language teachers, this comprehensive study provides tools to stimulate student interest in language learning for successful language learning.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Release date: Aug 13, 2016
• ISBN: 9781137340429

Book preview

© The Author(s) 2016

Tan Bee TinStimulating Student Interest in Language Learning10.1057/978-1-137-34042-9_1

1. Introduction (‘Interest’ as a New Conceptual Lens)

Tan Bee Tin¹ 

(1)

The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

1.1 Introduction

The term ‘interest’, which is widely researched in the learning of various disciplinary subjects, is a missing anomaly in second language learning and teaching research. This absence is partly due to a widespread view of language as a non-content-specific, communicative tool. Despite being a popular term used by second language practitioners with regard to selecting ‘interesting’ language teaching materials, its definition has rarely been discussed in detail. In a globalised world, where language learning and teaching occurs in various diverse contexts, new conceptual lenses have been offered as alternatives to motivation to understand students’ complex language learning experiences. Among them, ‘interest’, a content-specific and context-specific construct, is a key to understanding second language learning in a formal educational setting in a modern globalised world.

1.2 ‘Interest’—A Missing Anomaly in Second Language Learning and Teaching Research

Despite being a widespread term used in everyday language as well as in education, ‘interest’ is a missing anomaly in the discipline of applied linguistics and language learning/teaching research. This absence seems to lie in our view of language as a tool rather than an object, as a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Unlike other subjects such as maths, arts or science, when we talk about language learning, we see language as a non-content-specific vessel, a mediating or subsidiary tool to assist students with the learning of other subjects, and the performing of various communicative activities. This view of language as a ‘non-content-specific’ or a ‘content-less’ tool which can be filled with any content may have led to the absence of ‘interest’ (a content-specific construct) in the discipline of language learning/teaching research.

However, ‘interest’ has been widely discussed and researched in various disciplines such as science (e.g. Swarat et al. 2012), maths (e.g. Köller et al. 2001), physical education (e.g. Sun et al. 2008), history (e.g. Dan and Todd 2014; Del Favero et al. 2007), general education (e.g. Pregitzer and Clements 2013), literacy (e.g. Guthrie et al. 2006), literature (e.g. Ainley et al. 2002), art (e.g. Silvia 2009), and so on. This book proposes that ‘interest’ is an important construct to be considered in the domain of language learning and teaching and that ‘interest’ is all the more important because any kind of non-language content (‘content’ in a general sense encompassing materials, activities, topics, texts) can enter our language curriculum, with differences in their potentials for stimulatingstudents’ interest.

1.3 ‘Interest’—A Popular but Ill-Defined Term in Second Language Teaching Materials

Despite its virtual non-existence in second language teaching/learning research apart from a few studies in recent years (e.g. Doran 2013; Tin 2013; Wiśniewska 2013), the term ‘interest’ has been widely used by second language practitioners in their discussions of language teaching materials, especially with reference to choosing interesting texts for reading and learning language (e.g. Macalister 2011; Tomlinson 2013; Tomlinson and Masuhara 2013). For example, the word ‘interest’ (or ‘interesting’) appears as one of the items in Tomlinson and Masuhara’s (2013) evaluation of language teaching materials: ‘texts with potentially interesting content’ (p. 235); ‘the texts and activities do not engage the interest of foreign students’ as one of the most common complaints language teachers make about language teacher materials (p. 247). Similarly, Macalister (2011) proposes ‘interest’ as one of the important criteria for reading materials and language curriculums (e.g. ‘the texts and tasks interest the learners’ (p. 162); ‘the text should interest the target learners because of its content; looking for answers to their own questions should also interest the learners’ (p. 165)).

What is implied in such uses is a view of interest as a textual property, residing in the text or the task. The focus has been on one aspect of interest, often known to interest researchers as ‘text-based interest’ (‘an emotional state aroused by specific text features’ (Schiefele 1996, p. 4)) which is different from ‘topic interest’ (a specific form of individual interest) which is conceived of as an individual’s ‘relatively stable evaluative orientation toward certain topics’ (Schiefele 1996, p. 4). In the field of language learning and teaching, there has been a dearth of discussion concerning what ‘interest’ really means, what may make some texts, topics, or tasks more interesting than others, and how students and people may develop a particular kind of interest in the first place. It is often assumed that the use of certain authentic genres and text types such as jokes, songs and stories (narratives) or some activities (such as ‘looking for answers to their (learners’) own questions’ as indicated in Macalister’s (2011) discussion of reading materials) are inherently interesting and will engage students affectively.

However, as language teachers, we may have encountered students who don’t like reading literature, don’t like reading at all, don’t like songs, or don’t like ‘looking for answers to their own questions’. We may have also met students enrolled in an ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages) writing class wanting to practise speaking instead. We may have also encountered students who do not like learning grammar or vocabulary and simply learn it to pass examinations. So, how do we help such reluctant language learners in learning language and performing various language learning activities they are not interested in? How do we help students who don’t like reading to develop an interest in reading in a second language? How do we nurture an interest in writing among students who prefer to practise speaking despite being enrolled in a writing class? How do we stimulate students’ interest in learning grammar or vocabulary? Language teaching materials have often been accused of appealing to a particular group of people such as middle-class, urban students (e.g. see Gray 2010; Wajnryb 1996). How do we make sure that they appeal to other groups of students as well?

Many discussions concerning teaching language skills (e.g. reading, writing, listening, speaking) and language systems (e.g. vocabulary and grammar) have focused on the cognitive aspect of language learning. The focal point of such discussions has been on investigating the cognitive structure of various components of language and the cognitive processes involved in learning them. For example, if we look at how to teach reading, there is an abundance of discussion concerning the cognitive processes involved in reading such as top-down processes and bottom-up processes and the various types of knowledge involved in reading such as schematic knowledge (knowledge about the world) and systemic knowledge (language-specific knowledge). Similarly, if we consider teaching writing, many have documented the cognitive processes such as brainstorming, drafting, editing, revision involved in writing and the implications for teaching writing. Likewise, discussions concerning teaching grammar or vocabulary have also centred on the cognitive aspects: the nature of grammar or vocabulary as consisting of form and meaning and the cognitive processes involved in learning grammar (e.g. noticing, hypothesising, restructuring) or vocabulary (e.g. passive or active vocabulary knowledge, memorisation, use of meta-cognitive and cognitive strategies).

The affective aspect of various language skills and language systems has often been neglected. A pertinent issue that concerns many language teachers is not just about how to help students to learn grammar, learn vocabulary, learn to read or write efficiently (i.e. developing relevant cognitive skills related to grammar, vocabulary, reading or writing) but more importantly about how to get reluctant readers, unenthusiastic writers or learners lacking interest in grammar/vocabulary to become interested in reading/writing in a second language, or learning grammar/vocabulary respectively. ‘Interest’ is an important construct to be investigated in order to help us address some of those issues.

1.4 ‘Interest’—A New Conceptual Lens for Second Language Learning in a Globalised World

We can no longer treat all language learning experiences and languages the same in the modern globalised world. Languages vary in their currency in the share market of languages. While some languages such as English have increased in status as international languages, becoming highly sought after global commodities, other languages are treated as heritage languages with emotional attachment, for example an ethnic minority group learning the language of their heritage which is at the brink of extinction. Yet some other languages may be learned for various personal purposes, for example, learning foreign languages such as Korean, Chinese, or French by students in Myanmar (also known as Burma) in order to help with job hunting in the booming area of hotels and tourism in Myanmar; or Vietnamese sellers learning Russian in a seaside town in Vietnam which is a popular holiday destination for Russian tourists.

Among various languages, English language in particular is nowadays taught, learned, and used in various diverse contexts. As the context in which English language learning, use and teaching diversifies, the status of English language and the activity of English language learning too have diversified. Various conceptual lenses and concepts have been proposed as alternatives to motivation in order to understand diverse language learning experiences in the globalised world, in particular to understand language learning experiences in informal contexts. For example Norton (2000) have proposed the concept of ‘investment’ as an alternative to ‘motivation’ to explain the language learning behaviour of adult immigrants in Canada, while Kubota (2011) uses the terms ‘consumption’ and ‘desire’ rather than ‘investment’ to delineate the learning behaviour of adult Japanese learners learning English in informal settings. Among those various alternatives, ‘interest’ is ‘a pedagogically valuable alternative lens’ (Tin 2013, p. 130) to be included in second language learning and teaching practice and research. In particular, ‘interest’ can help language educators to understand and improve the learning behaviour of students in formal educational settings where a second or foreign language such as English is often learned as a school subject, as a requirement rather than as an object of desire or personal choice. While some students may have developed a personal interest in learning language, others may merely be learning it as part of a formal educational requirement or as a social pressure.

What triggers interest in language learning in one context—at one time and in one space—may not necessarily stimulate interest in another context (another time and/or in another place). What triggers interest for a group of students (e.g. girls, teenagers) may not generate interest in another group (e.g. boys, adults). ‘Interest’, a content-specific and context-specific construct, is a key to understanding such complex language learning experiences in a globalised world where languages take on different values and learning and teaching languages take place in diverse contexts.

1.5 Conclusion

This chapter proposes ‘interest’ as an important construct that requires investigation if we are to understand second language learning experiences in a modern globalised world. Language learning and teaching, in particular, English language teaching, nowadays takes place in diverse contexts, and general motivation theories used to explain general human language learning behaviour are no longer adequate for comprehending complex language learning experiences in diverse contexts. Despite the widespread view of language as a non-content-specific tool used to carry any kind of content, the fact that any kind of content (e.g. texts, activities) can enter our language curriculum makes it all the more important to investigate the content-specific ‘interest’ construct in the field of language learning and teaching, which has largely been investigated with reference to general motivation theories.

1.6 Outline of the Book

The book is divided into three parts: theory, research, and practice. Part I (Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4) mainly concerns theoretical issues surrounding the interest construct. Part II (Chapters 5, 6, 7, 8) reports the findings of research conducted by the author to investigate the interest construct with reference to the discipline of language learning and teaching. Part III (Chapters 9 and 10) offers some practical examples, applying in practice issues arising from the first two parts.

Chapter 1 discusses how the interest construct is a popular but ill-defined term in the discipline of language teaching and learning research and why it is important to investigate it.

Chapter 2 examines and compares the term ‘interest’ with other similar concepts used in the literature of language learning and teaching such as affect, emotion, enjoyment, curiosity and motivation.

Chapter 3 offers a definition of interest by considering its various aspects: what it is, what it is made up of, what its types are, what contributes to its emergence and how it develops. It refers to various theoretical issues offered in the educational psychology literature and also contemplates their relevance for the discipline of language learning and teaching.

Chapter 4 considers the methodological issues concerning interest research. It critically reviews the methodological issues involved in interest studies which adopt a traditional psychological approach. It also discusses some recent approaches to interest studies: a discursive psychological approach and a dynamic system approach and proposes interest not only as a psychological but also as a social, discursive construct.

Chapters 5, 6, 7, 8 report the findings from various interest studies conducted by the author in the discipline of language teaching and learning. Chapter 5 examines the ‘interest’ construct with reference to a group of English language teachers and educators. Chapters 6 and 7 report the findings arising from a longitudinal study conducted in one particular EFL (English as a Foreign Language) context, using students studying English in a four-years BA in English programme in Myanmar (Burma). Chapter 8 describes the features of interesting teacher talk employed by one particular teacher whose classes were rated as most interesting by students.

Chapter 9 offers a framework for stimulating students’ interest, applying in practice research findings and theories discussed in the various preceding chapters. Also, Chapter 10, the final conclusion, summarises the key issues in the book.

References

Ainley, M., Hillman, K., & Hidi, S. (2002). Gender and interest processes in response to literary texts: Situational and individual interest. Learning and Instruction, 12, 411–428.CrossRef

Dan, Y., & Todd, R. (2014). Examining the mediating effect of learning strategies on the relationship between students’ history interest and achievement. Educational Psychology, 34(7), 799–817.CrossRef

Del Favero, L., Boscolo, P., Vidotto, G., & Vicentini, M. (2007). Classroom discussion and individual problem-solving in the teaching of history: Do different instructional approaches affect interest in different ways? Learning and Instruction, 17(6), 635–657.CrossRef

Doran, N. (2013). An interesting project about interest. In R. Chartrand (ed.) The 2013 PanSIG Proceedings (From Many, One: Collaboration, Cooperation, and Community) (pp. 53–62). JALT PanSIG.

Gray, J. (2010). The branding of English and the culture of the new capitalism: Representations of the world of work in English language textbooks. Applied Linguistics, 31(5), 714–733.CrossRef

Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Humenick, N. M., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., & Barbosa, P. (2006). Influences of stimulating tasks on reading motivation and comprehension. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(4), 232–246.CrossRef

Köller, O., Baumert, J., & Schnabel, K. (2001). Does interest matter? The relationship between academic interest and achievement in mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 32(5), 448–470.CrossRef

Kubota, R. (2011). Learning a foreign language as leisure and consumption: Enjoyment, desire, and the business of eikaiwa. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14(4), 473–488.CrossRef

Macalister, J. (2011). Today’s teaching, tomorrow’s text: Exploring the teaching of reading. ELT Journal, 65(2), 161–169.CrossRef

Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity, and educational change. London: Longman/Pearson Education.

Pregitzer, M., & Clements, S. N. (2013). Bored with the core: Stimulating student interest in online general education. Educational Media International, 50(3), 162–176.CrossRef

Schiefele, U. (1996). Topic interest, text representation, and quality of experience. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21(1), 3–18.CrossRef

Silvia, P. J. (2009). Looking past pleasure: Anger, confusion, disgust, pride, surprise, and other unusual aesthetic emotions. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 3(1), 48–51.CrossRef

Sun, H., Chen, A., Ennis, C., Martin, R., & Shen, B. (2008). An examination of the multidimensionality of situational interest in elementary school physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 79(1), 62–70.CrossRef

Swarat, S., Ortony, A., & Revelle, W. (2012). Activity matters: Understanding student interest in school science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49(4), 515–537.CrossRef

Tin, T. B. (2013). Exploring the development of ‘interest’ in learning English as a foreign/second language. RELC Journal, 44(2), 129–146.CrossRef

Tomlinson, B. (2013). Humanizing the coursebook. In B. Tomlinson (Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching (2nd ed., pp. 139–156). London: Bloomsbury.

Tomlinson, B., & Masuhara, H. (2013). Survey review (Adult coursebooks). ELT Journal, 67(2), 233–249.CrossRef

Wajnryb, R. (1996). Death, taxes, and jeopardy: Systematic omissions in EFL texts, or life was never meant to be an adjacency pair. ELICOS, Sydney, Australia: Ninth Educational Conference.

Wiśniewska, D. (2013). Interest and interest-enhancing strategies of adolescent EFL learners. ELT Journal, 67(2), 210–219.CrossRef

© The Author(s) 2016

Tan Bee TinStimulating Student Interest in Language Learning10.1057/978-1-137-34042-9_2

2. ‘Interest’ and Other Similar Terms

Tan Bee Tin¹ 

(1)

The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

2.1 Introduction

In the literature of general education as well as in second language education, the term ‘interest’ has been used in association with various similar terms such as ‘affect’, ‘emotion’, ‘enjoyment’, ‘liking’, ‘curiosity’, and ‘motivation’. An understanding of how ‘interest’ is related to those various similar terms can enhance our understanding of the ‘interest’ construct and its role in second language learning. It helps us understand why ‘interest’ is a key component to be included in second language learning and teaching research. The discussion in this chapter draws on both general education and second language education literature.

2.2 Interest and Affect—‘Interest’ as a Category of Positive Affect Which Promotes Successful Language Learning

In language teaching and learning literature, ‘interest’ is often listed as a category under positive affect and emotions. For example, in Arnold’s (2009) discussion of ‘affect’ in language learning, ‘interest’ and ‘curiosity’ appear as categories under positive affect which promotes successful language learning. Thus, an understanding of what ‘affect’ means can contribute to our understanding of what ‘interest’ (a component of ‘positive affect’) is; how it contributes to successful language learning; and how it differs from other positive and negative emotions.

Affect is an umbrella term used to refer to a number of concepts—feeling, mood, attitude, emotion, belief which can affect behaviour and (language) learning (e.g. see Arnold 1999; Arnold and Brown 1999). Language learning, unlike other subjects, is complex and emotions are more at stake. As MacIntyre (1999, p. 32 cited in Kębłowska 2012, p. 164) claims, language learners are more likely ‘to embarrass themselves, to frustrate their self-expression, and challenge their self-esteem and sense of identity than in any other learning activity’ as they try to express themselves using a language which they have not yet fully mastered. As language and self are closely connected, an attack on one is often considered to be an attack on the other.

In the field of second language learning research, affect has been investigated as emotions (e.g. Aragão 2011). Many studies have looked at the emotions involved in learning and using different languages (e.g. Imai 2010; Pavlenko 2005, 2006). However, certain emotions such as ‘motivation’ and ‘anxiety’ have received more attention than others. ‘Interest’ is a missing category in the analytical framework employed in second language research but it is often lurking as an important emotion in their findings (e.g. Guillauteaux and Dörnyei 2008; Imai 2010). For example, in Imai’s (2010) study of how a group of language learners coped with negative emotions they felt about certain language learning tasks and the teacher, the researcher found that the students regulated several emotional strategies (which interest researchers might call ‘interest-enhancing strategies’), turning boring language learning tasks into interesting ones in order to complete the tasks. Similarly, ‘interest’ appears as one of the items in the 25 observational variables measuring the teacher’s motivational practice used in the study conducted by Guillauteaux and Dörnyei (2008, p. 63): (‘arousing curiosity’—‘raising the students’ expectations that the upcoming activity is going to be interesting and/or important (e.g., by asking them to guess what they are going to do next, or by pointing out fun, challenging, or important aspects of the activity or contents to be learned)’). The term ‘interest’ or ‘interesting’ is rarely defined in detail. It is often loosely used in association with other associated terms such as ‘curiosity’, ‘important’, ‘challenging’, ‘fun’.

Although affect is often used as an opposite of cognition, researchers in both general education and second language education disciplines have argued that affect is not secondary to cognition and can’t be separated from cognition (e.g. Arnold 2009). Affect is a primary aspect of learning and human behaviour and is part of cognition. In the field of language teaching, the affective aspect of learning has gained increased attention since the 1970s and is reflected in many language teaching methods such as humanistic approaches to language teaching. For example, humanistic approaches and methods like Suggestopedia, Silent Method, Community Language Learning (CLL), Learner-centred approach, Total Physical Response (TPR)—all put emphasis on increasing positive affect such as trust, self-esteem, self-confidence, collaborative group dynamics, willingness to take risk, and attempt to reduce negative affect such as anxiety and fear. However, the interplay between affect and cognition has received attention only in recent years. Hurd (2007, p. 253), for example, proposes ‘emotions’ as ‘interior signals’ which ‘function as a guide for actions and cognition’. ‘Interest’, an important aspect of positive affect, then shouldn’t be separated from cognition and plays an important role in second language learning.

2.3 Interest and Emotion—‘Interest’ as a Positive Emotional State Which Produces a Knowledge-Seeking Behaviour

‘Emotion’, another term used in association with ‘interest’, is usually defined as feeling, mood, or affect state (S. Park and Lim 2007, p. 162). In their study, S. Park and Lim use ‘emotion’ to refer to a specific feeling state for specific objects, distinguishing ‘emotion’ from other more general terms such as ‘mood’ and ‘affect’. ‘Mood’ usually refers to more general feeling states without any specific object and ‘affect’ refers to a more stable, dispositional feeling state. On the other hand, ‘emotion’ is a specific feeling state for specific objects (S. Park and Lim 2007).

With the realisation of the role of affect in learning, the role and nature of various types of emotions (both positive and negative emotions) have received increased attention. Researchers in the discipline of mainstream education have identified numerous emotions that can be experienced during information interaction (e.g. joy, surprise, anger, interest, confusion, familiarity, and frustration) (Arapakis et al. 2008; Kort et al. 2001; Kuhlthau 2004). Among various emotions, some (e.g. interest, surprise, confusion) are claimed to be more associated with thinking, learning, exploring, and comprehending than other emotions (e.g. joy, pride). Such thinking-related emotions are often referred to as ‘information emotions’, ‘epistemic emotions’ (Silvia 2009), or ‘cognitive-affective states’ (e.g. see D’Mello and Graesser 2012). Cognition plays an important role in such groups of epistemic emotions, which are claimed to play an important role in the development of knowledge and learning. Epistemic emotions ‘motivate learning, thinking, and exploring, actions that foster the growth of knowledge’ (Silvia 2009, p. 49).

In the field of positive psychology, ‘interest’ appears in the list of four basic positive human emotions proposed by general educational researchers and is argued to be a key for human psychological well-being and personal growth (e.g. see Ainley 2013). Applying the cognitive appraisal theory of emotions, cognitive psychologists (e.g. Silvia 2005, 2006, 2008a, 2008b; Ely et al. 2013) contend that each emotion has a different appraisal structure although they may co-occur. Although interest may possess a similarly pleasant subjective affective state as other positive emotions such as joy, love and pride, what distinguishes interest from other positive emotions is the motivational outcomes and the context-specificity of interest. Only interest can generate the exploratory motivational behaviour, that is, a feeling of wanting to investigate and seek knowledge. In other words, as Izard (1977, p. 216) notes, only interest can generate ‘a feeling of wanting to investigate, become involved, or extend or expand the self by incorporating new information and having new experiences with the person or object that has stimulated the interest’.

In the field of language learning, in particular English language learning, other positive emotions such as ‘desire’ (desire for English) have been proposed to understand the motivational behaviour of students in certain contexts (e.g. Kramsch 2009; Kubota 2011; Piller and Takahashi 2006). Desire is defined as ‘the urge to escape from a state of tedious conformity with one’s present environment to a state of plenitude and enhanced power’ as well as ‘the urge to survive and to cling to the familiar’ (Kramsch 2006, p. 101). The appraisal structure of ‘desire’ for English would differ from that of interest. While ‘desire’ would involve pleasant subjective experience, interest involves more than pleasant experience—it produces a knowledge-seeking, exploratory behaviour. Emotions such as desire which are devoid of cognition often account for the negative relation between such emotions and language development found in some studies. For example, Piller and Takahashi (2006) suggest that a negative link often exists between a desire for English demonstrated among Japanese females and their success in English. Similarly, Kubota (2011) also notes that a desire for English is associated with the ‘maintenance’ rather than the ‘development’ of the English language skills and knowledge. Thus, the knowledge-seeking motivational outcome, unique to epistemic emotions such as ‘interest’, is important for successful language learning, making ‘interest’ a key ingredient in the mix of emotions vital for successful language learning.

2.4 Interest and Enjoyment—A Problematic Pair, Each with a Different Appraisal Structure

Among various positive emotions, ‘interest’ and ‘enjoyment’ have often been treated as synonyms in several studies in the discipline of general education (e.g. Jeon et al. 2011) as well as in the field of second language education (e.g. Dörnyei 1998; Williams and Burden 1999). However, these two emotions have different appraisal structures and serve different functions although they may co-occur at times. Cognitive psychologists (e.g. Silvia 2008a, 2008b; van der Sluis 2013) argue that ‘interest’ is different from ‘enjoyment’ in terms of the appraisal structure. While ‘interest’ involves two appraisals—the complexity/novelty appraisal and the coping competence appraisal,¹ ‘enjoyment’ involves the pleasant, ease of understanding appraisal. In terms of functionality, they also lead to different behaviour. While ‘interest’ instigates exploratory behaviour and knowledge-seeking (cognitive behaviour), ‘enjoyment’ is more associated with positive affect.

In terms of learning, interest thus plays an important role, contributing to positive personal growth at all various stages (infancy, early childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, and elderly stage). For example, as Ainley (2013) notes, exploratory behaviour is vital for infants to acquire knowledge schemas which act as a smooth transition to schooling. Similarly, interest contributes to the identity construction and knowledge building of adolescents and adults. It also plays an important part in coping with negative affect as exploratory behaviour is often triggered by uncertainty, novelty, incoherence and confusion. In adults and elderly, interest is also found to be a character strength, associated with life-long learning and life-satisfaction. Although ‘joy’ and ‘enjoyment’ may result in a healthier lifestyle, it is ‘interest’ that leads to knowledge and personal growth.

In the language learning/teaching domain, the word ‘enjoyment’ has often been regarded as an important part of learning. Many language learning activities such as language games have been designed to give students an opportunity to use and practice language in a ‘fun’ way. Although such ‘fun’ activities may result in a positive affective environment in the classroom, ‘enjoyment’ or ‘pleasure’ alone without ‘interest’ (a knowledge-intensive emotion) does not guarantee knowledge-seeking and exploratory behaviour vital for successful language learning.

2.5 Interest and Curiosity—A Difference in Linguistic Behaviour and Collocation

‘Interest’ and ‘curiosity’ are often used alternatively in both general education literature (e.g. see Ainley 2013; Silvia 2003, 2006) and in second language education research (e.g. Dörnyei 1998; Williams and Burden 1999) and are similar in terms of their functional properties. Both have the function of motivating exploratory behaviour and knowledge-seeking and are proposed as important virtues of human psychological well-being and personal growth in the field of positive psychology. Despite this similarity, their difference lies in the linguistic environment in which they appear. While curiosity is used more in association with people (e.g. ‘curious people, curious readers’), interest is used more in association with things (e.g. ‘interesting things, interesting books’). While some interest researchers use ‘curiosity’ to refer to a more stable personal trait (e.g. see Hulme et al. 2013), others use ‘interest’ to refer to both stable personal traits as well as state emotion. Some interest researchers on the other hand, for example Silvia (2006), following Berlyne (1949)’s earlier use of the terms, proposes that ‘interest’ and ‘curiosity’ are similar in meaning at the level of subjective experience. They both generate and initiate exploration and information-seeking behaviour in the moment.

In the field of second language teaching and practice, ‘interest’ is a more widely and frequently used term among language teaching practitioners with particular reference to interesting texts, language teaching materials, classes and lessons. Thus the term ‘interest’ may have acquired various features and properties which haven’t been much used in association with ‘curiosity’. According to the discursive psychological view and the usage-based model of language, with every usage, the meaning of words changes and words that are used together are bound together (e.g. see Bybee 2003; N. Ellis 2008; Tin 2011). Thus, several ‘emergent’ features of interest may have appeared in the discourses of language teaching practitioners and students as well as those of interest researchers.

2.6 Interest and Motivation—‘Interest’ as a Unique Motivational Variable with a Difference

In both general education and second language education literature, another term used in association with ‘interest’ is ‘motivation’. ‘Interest’ is often used as a synonym of ‘intrinsic motivation’ or ‘inherent curiosity’ (e.g. Crookes and Schmidt 1991; Dörnyei 1994) and often appears as a component of motivation.