New Exodus in Hebrews

By Bong Chur Shin

For many readers the Epistle to the Hebrews is among the most difficult books of the New Testament. Korean scholar Bong-chur Shin’s work provides a welcome insight into interpretive issues for biblical scholars and serious students. The book provides an exegetical framework which helps readers navigate the meaning of the text, by examining

• Language: English
• Publisher: Apostolos Publishing Ltd
• Release date: Sep 6, 2016
• ISBN: 9781910942444

Bong Chur Shin

Dr Bong Chur Shin, M.Div, Th.M., Ph.D. is Senior Pastor of Kyungnam Church, South Korea and a lecturer at Kosin University.

Book preview

Acknowledgements

To God be all the glory for his grace and blessing upon me during my research work for the PhD degree in Wales.

I would like to thank, first of all, Dr. Tom Holland, who has helped and encouraged me to develop this research. I would also like to thank Dr. Eryl Davies, the recently retired principal of the Evangelical Theological College of Wales. My appreciation is to be extended to Professor D. P. Davies for his guidance and kindness.

I also greatly appreciate the kind support of the members of the Gasil Presbyterian Church. In addition, I thank my brother, elder Won-min Shin and my friend Dr Ki hyung Kim, Mrs. Nan hee Do, Mrs. Eun hwa Shin and Mrs. Ock sook Lee.

Finally, I wish to express my deepest awareness of my debt to my wife, Jung-Hee, who has dedicated her life for my work, to my daughter Hanna and my son Isaac, who have been very patient and given me energy to finish this study.

Sola Deo Gloria

Abbreviations

Abstract

This study examines the new exodus expectations raised by the Old Testament prophets in Second Temple Judaism. It has been lately accepted that these expectations resulted in the aspirations of intertestamental Judaism which were known to, and utilized by, the writers and the first readers of the New Testament documents. With this in mind, I shall examine the Epistle to the Hebrews to see in what ways (if any) such expectations are present in the text. My conclusions demonstrate that the epistle is indeed constructed around these expectations, which I shall summarize as follows:

The epistle is built around the theme of deliverance, as promised by the prophets. The author to the Hebrews first demonstrates what such deliverance means in corporate terms and then proceeds to explain it has been fulfilled in the life and death of Christ.

The writer shows his readers that, as believers in Christ, they have a journey to endure before arriving at the goal of their salvation. This journey theme is related to that of deliverance, as I shall demonstrate by contrasting Israel’s experience in the wilderness with that of the church.

The Jews in exile in Babylon were promised that they would return from the exile led by a son of David who would establish a new covenant—another theme picked up by the writer of Hebrews.

There was widespread expectation of a Messiah who would be both a king and priest as promised in the prophetic writings as part of the new exodus motif. This book explores the ministry of this priestly king and his key role in the salvation of the covenant community.

The theme of Holy Spirit is also examined. The Spirit is closely related to the new exodus. This study shows that the Spirit witnesses to his people, enabling them to obey and to live in unity and fellowship during their eschatological pilgrimage.

Contents

Acknowledgements

Abstract

Chapter 1: Introduction

Introduction

Summary of the New Exodus Theme in Biblical and Extra-Biblical Literature

The Old Testament

The Dead Sea Scrolls

The Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha

Rabbinic Writings

Josephus

The New Testament

The Current State of New Exodus Studies in New Testament Theology

New Exodus in the Gospels

The Significance of the Paschal Setting in the Exodus

Greco-Roman Tradition

Aqedah Tradition

Passover Tradition

The Current State of Paschal Studies in New Testament Theology

Chapter 2: Summary of Earlier Scholars’ Appreciation of the Presence of New Exodus Expectations in Hebrews

Introduction

Survey

Analysis

Chapter 3: The Deliverance Theme

Introduction

Some Views of Deliverance

In Hellenism

Gnosticism

Deliverance in the Old Testament

Deliverance in the Synoptics and the Epistles

Deliverance in the Epistle to the Hebrews

What is Deliverance in Hebrews?

The Deliverance of God’s People Through Christ’s Death

Deliverance from the Power of Death

The Corporate Nature of Deliverance

Conclusion

Excursus: The Meaning of the Paschal Lamb Implied to the Firstborn in the Passover.

Chapter 4: The Pilgrimage Theme

Introduction

Pilgrimage and Passover

Pilgrimage as an Essential Element of Israel’s Obligation

Pilgrimage in the Psalms and Prophets

Pilgrimage in the Intertestamental Literature

Pilgrimage in Gospels and the Epistles

The Gospels

The Epistles

Pilgrimage in Hebrews

Impending Danger, but with Purpose: Heb 3–4

Pilgrimage in the Passover Setting

Pilgrimage in the Face of Impending Danger

Pilgrimage with Purpose

Summing Up

The Goal of Pilgrimage: Heb 12

Conclusion

Chapter 5: The New Covenant Theme

Introduction

The New Covenant and its Context

The Day of Atonement Setting

The Passover Setting

The Nature of the New Covenant in the Passover Setting

The New Covenant Theme in the Old Testament

The New Covenant in the Intertestamental Literature

The New Covenant Theme in the Gospels and the Epistles

The Gospels

The Epistles

The New Covenant Theme in Hebrews

Διαθήκη in the New Exodus Setting

The Term μεσίτης in the New Covenant

Corporate Concept in the New Covenant

Conclusion

Excursus: The Term Perfection (τελείωσις) in the Paschal Setting

Chapter 6: The Priestly King Theme

Introduction

Some Views of the Priestly King Theme

Philo’s Understanding of the Priesthood

The Levitical Priesthood

6.2.3 The Priesthood in Qumran

The Priestly King Resulting in Deliverance

The Priestly King Theme in the Old Testament

Genesis

Psalms

Chronicles

Ezekiel

The Priestly King Theme in the Gospels and Acts and the Epistles

The Synoptic Gospels

Acts

John

Romans

Timothy

Peter

The Priestly King Theme in Hebrews

Priestly King Relating to Deliverance

Christ’s Priestly Kingship in Eschatology

Conclusion

Chapter 7: The Holy Spirit Theme

Introduction

Some Views Relating to the Spirit

Persian Influences

Philo

The Holy Spirit Related to Redemption in the Passover

The Spirit Theme in the Old Testament

The Spirit Theme in the Intertestamental Literature

The Spirit Theme in the Gospels, Acts and the Epistles

The Spirit Theme in Hebrews

The Spirit and Deliverance

The Spirit in Eschatology

The Spirit and His Corporative Presence

Conclusion

Chapter 8: Conclusion

Bibliography

Chapter 1: Introduction

Introduction

During the exodus, the Jews experienced deliverance from bondage in Egypt and consequently, the exodus may be viewed as Israel’s founding moment. Not only did it shape the national identity and character of the nation, but the later prophets of the Babylonian exile used it as the paradigm for the deliverance they announced.¹ The return of Israel from the Babylonian exile in the Old Testament was therefore portrayed as a new exodus.²

Not only so, but the writings of the intertestamental period were also influenced by this paradigm, so that a new exodus theme is found extensively throughout Jewish literature. It ought not to be surprising then, that this same paradigm of new exodus was picked up and utilized by the mainly Jewish New Testament writers.

In the New Testament the events of the exodus are treated as parables of Christian experience.³ Jesus’s death is referred to as his exodus;⁴ and he is the true Passover, sacrificed for his people⁵ as a lamb without blemish and without spot.⁶ Christ is seen as the eschatological saviour from the power of the darkness. Thus the redemptive work of Christ is understood to by the New Testament authors to be another new exodus.

Summary of the New Exodus Theme in Biblical and Extra-Biblical Literature

Since the actual term new exodus was not used in Jewish literature, my assertion that it is present as a theme may at first seem controversial. Some scholars regard it as a label for a Mosaic typology. Manek relates Moses to Jesus, identifying the two men in Luke 24:4 with Moses and Elijah.⁷ Manek sees that as Moses led Israel from Egypt to the promised land, so Jesus leads the new Israel from the earthly Jerusalem to a heavenly Jerusalem.⁸ Similarly, Moessner⁹ and Evans¹⁰ see it as a replay of the narrative patterns of the exodus described in Deuteronomy. Moessner points out that Luke’s account of Jesus’s mountain transfiguration is paralleled with the Deuteronomic account of Moses being called to mediate the voice of God on the mountain (Deut 18:15–19), thus effecting a new exodus for a renewed people of God.¹¹ According to Moessner, the pattern in Luke 9 provides a preview which controls the central section of Luke. Watts challenges the claims of Moessner and Evans by saying that Luke begins the new exodus with John the Baptist’s ministry in the wilderness—a parallel with Isa 40:3–5.¹² Thus Watts sees the term as a description of a post-Exilic constellation of hopes developed from Isa 40–55.¹³ Whilst he does not relate it to the exodus accounts directly, he uses Isaiah’s exodus typology to depict Israel’s deliverance from exile. Watts concludes that Isaiah’s new exodus theme is the basis for Mark’s Gospel.

However, the new exodus theme is foundational to the whole of the Scriptures. Isaiah’s prophetic transformation of the past Exodus reads the Torah as a reference to the return from captivity. The prophets announced that a new and final redemption from slavery will take place, and the New Testament claims that this redemption takes place in Jesus.

Therefore, I shall summarize the new exodus expectations derived from the Old Testament, intertestamental literature, and rabbinic literature as well as those found in the New Testament itself, to see if there are reasonable grounds for supposing that it might have been a significant influence on the thinking of the early church. I shall then evaluate the current state of these studies on the new exodus theme in the New Testament before specifically appraising the studies written on the influence of the Passover. Finally, I shall examine the studies that have considered the description of the death of Christ as Passover sacrifice.

The Old Testament

The exodus of Israel from Egypt was the great act of redemption within the Old Testament. Even so, the exodus event became the basis of expectation for God’s future redemptive acts. In particular, when the Israelites of the northern kingdom were in exile in Assyria, and Jews of the southern kingdom were in exile in Babylon, the paradigm served to provide them with the hope of a new exodus. For this reason, the model of new exodus which they expected was from the first based on that of the exodus from Egypt.

The composer of Psalm 98 reflects on the many times when God had saved Israel. The first stanza of the Psalm is reminiscent of the exodus, the wars won under Joshua, the times God delivered Israel from foreign oppressors during the period of the judges, the deliverance from the Philistines under David, and so on, down to the time when God brought the remnant safely back from Babylon.¹⁴

Isaiah speaks of a new beginning—a new exodus more glorious than the old exodus from Egypt. The first exodus is the prototype for the eschatological exodus. The new exodus brings liberty to the captives,¹⁵ and is led by a Davidic prince.¹⁶ According to Isaiah, the eschatological king once again comes down to meet with his people. He comes awesomely and terribly,¹⁷ but condescendingly; graciously tabernacling in the midst of his people.¹⁸ The Lord enters into a new covenant with the eschatological pilgrims.¹⁹ At last, the new exodus will conclude with the possession of the land.²⁰

Jeremiah prophesied that the evidence of membership of the covenant community was to be the circumcised heart.²¹ The promise concerning the new covenant, given during the time of Israel’s deportation, is seen by the New Testament writers as being fulfilled in the person and work of Jesus the Christ and extends to the consummation of all things.²²

Ezekiel predicted that God would give his people life as the gift of salvation.²³ The event by which Israel was given back its life was the return, which began with Cyrus’s decree in 538 BC. This allowed those in Babylon who wanted to return to go back to their homeland, symbolically giving new life to dead Israel.

Micah points out that the wonders performed during the exodus would be repeated.²⁴ Zechariah along with others signified that the Davidic prince would build a new temple for the Lord and cleanse the sin of the people.²⁵ Hosea concludes that the second exodus would culminate in the marriage of Yahweh to his people.²⁶

The Dead Sea Scrolls

The Qumran community waited for victory by a Messiah who would stand alongside the Davidic Messiah. A coming Messiah would fulfill the Isaianic prophecies and be called the branch of David:

[… just as it is written in the book of] Isaiah the prophet, And [the thickets of the forest] shall be cut down (1) [with an axe, and Lebanon with its majestic trees w]ill fall. (2) A shoot shall come out from the stump of Jesse [and a branch shall grow out of his roots (Isa 10:34–11:1). This is the] Branch of David. (3) Then [all forces of Belial] shall be judged, [and the king of the Kittim shall stand for judgment] and the Leader of the nation—the Bra[nch of David]—will have him put to death. (4) [Then all Israel shall come out with timbrel]s and dancers, (5) and the [High] Priest shall order [them to cleanse their bodies from the guilty blood of the c]orpse[s of] the Kittim.²⁷

God reveals the time when the Temple will be built and tells of what the descendant of David would carry out about the community’s expectation:

He will not [abandon Zion], to make His name dwell there, the Tent of Meeting … [to the end] of time, for look, a son is born to Jesse of Perez son of Ju[dah … he will choose] the rock of Zion and drive out from there all the Amorites from Jeru[salem …] to build the temple for the Lord, God of Israel, gold and silver […] cedar and pine shall he bring from Lebanon to build it; and his younger son [shall build the temple … and Zadok] shall serve as priest….²⁸

The Damascus Document has a reference to the future spirit-empowered ministry of the Messiah: … the Holy Spirit [sett]led upon His Messiah.²⁹

Taken together, the Qumran community anticipated that the prophecies of the exilic period would yet be fulfilled in the raising up of a Davidic Messiah who would accomplish all that the prophets had foretold.³⁰

The Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha

Cohn-Sherbok³¹ has pointed out the various stages of messianic anticipation in Ben Sira 36.1–22—the destruction of Israel’s enemies, the sanctification of God’s name by elevating the Jewish nation, the performance of miracles, the ingathering of the exiles, the glorification of Jerusalem and the Temple, reward for the righteous and punishment for the wicked, and the fulfillment of prophetic expectations.

In Baruch, the author prophesies that God will bring about the return of the exiles to the land of their fathers once they have turned from their evil ways.³² Furthermore, he describes how Jerusalem is to be renewed.

The Book of Jubilees not only refers to the new exodus theme, but also to messianic ideas similar to what is found in the Apocrypha. The Israelites will be punished because of the nation’s sinfulness, but this will be followed by repentance, and only then Israel will be redeemed. The Lord will build his sanctuary in their midst and dwell among them:

And I will build my sanctuary in their midst, and I will dwell with them, and I will be their God and they shall be my people in truth and righteousness.³³

The Testament of Judah also contains a vivid description of messianic redemption:³⁴

A shoot will come forth from the stock of Judah and the rod of righteousness will be in his hand to judge and save all those who call upon him. Those who died in grief will arise and awake to everlasting life. The hungry will be satisfied, the poor made rich, and the weak become strong.

Rabbinic Writings

After the Second Temple had been destroyed by the Romans, the Jewish people were again driven out of their homeland. During their trials they desired a kingly figure who, drawing on messianic ideas found in Scripture, would deliver them from exile and rebuild their holy city. The Rabbinic writings repeatedly mention the exodus as a model of final redemption.³⁵ They taught that God would himself act on behalf of Israel. Thus in the midrash, the rabbis maintain that:

There are four shinings forth: the first was in Egypt, as it is written (Psalm 80:1), Give ear, O Shepherd of Israel, thou that lead Joseph like a flock, thou that art enthroned upon the cherubim, shine forth; the second was at the time of the giving of the Law, as it is written (Deuteronomy 33:2), He shone forth from Mount Paran; the third will take place in the days of Gog and Magog, as it is written (Psalm 94:1), Thou God to whom vengeance belongeth, shine forth; the fourth will be in the days of the Messiah (ben David) as it is written (Psalm 50:2), Out of Zion, the perfection of beauty, shall God shine forth.

Furthermore, Ben-Sira prays for a repetition of the signs and wonders of the exodus in a final redemption established on exodus lines. Joshua ben Hananiah assumes that the final redemption would happen on the night of Passover.³⁶

Josephus

Josephus introduced the presence of the new exodus theme by telling the Theudas narrative in Antiquities. Theudas, a charlatan, told a great part of the people that he was a prophet, promising that the Jordan would divide once again.³⁷ The repetition of the miracle of Jericho on the walls of Jerusalem was predicted by another prophet.³⁸ Josephus also tells how the weaver Jonathan foretold of miracles in the wilderness.³⁹ He repeatedly tells how the messianic pretenders called their followers to the desert,⁴⁰ the location that popular opinion associated with the coming of eschatological salvation. This practice was founded on the historical fact that the Jews came from the wilderness following their exodus, to claim their inheritance.

The New Testament

The New Testament declares Jesus to be the promised Son of David; this is evidence of new exodus expectations. Simeon was convinced that he would not die before seeing the promised Messiah.⁴¹ Matthew in the genealogy of Jesus Christ demonstrated him to be the offspring of David.⁴² John the Baptist identified himself—as did the Qumranians—as a voice in the wilderness preparing the way of the Lord. Jesus himself asserted that the kingdom of heaven was at hand.⁴³

Therefore, the fact that the New Testament declares Jesus to be the promised son of David must not be missed. The Messiah who was to be the promised descendant of David would have an everlasting throne.⁴⁴ The identification of Jesus with the promises relating to the Davidic deliverer is crucial to appreciate how the early church understood the person and work of its saviour.⁴⁵ The Son of David Christology represents the earliest Christology which emerges alongside the Son of Man description.

Both Jesus and the Baptist began their missions by citing Isa 40:3–5 and Isa 61:1–2.⁴⁶ Holland points out that by citing these words they were announcing that the final salvation had at last broken into human history.⁴⁷

In Mark 13 Jesus appears himself to be a priestly king. There he seems to follow the idea which Ezekiel had outlined in Ezek 45:18–25. That is, Jesus is depicted as the priestly king for redemption.

In Luke 1:32–33, the author mentioned the characteristics of the Messiah:

He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Most High, and the Lord God will give to him the throne of his ancestor David. He will reign over the house of Jacob forever, and of his kingdom there will be no end (Luke 1:32–33).

In Acts 2:17 the outpouring of the Spirit is linked to the arrival of the eschatological age as described in Joel 2:28. The outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost is a decisive sign of the eschatological events which proceed the day of the Lord as the mark of the new exodus. Pao links the Pentecost event in Acts 2 to the Sinai tradition of the giving of the Law to emphasize the importance of the event as the dawn of a new era which brings about the reconstitution of the people of God.⁴⁸

The pilgrimage theme is also widely acknowledged in the New Testament.⁴⁹ This pilgrimage is emphasized by reminders of Jesus’s final journey to Jerusalem, which becomes the dominant image of discipleship for the eschatological salvation. In Acts 7 Stephen’s speech recounts the exodus journeying with Moses in order to present the essential heritage of the church as well as justifying its existence during one of the most critical stages of the community’s early history.

In Mark 14:24 Jesus described the wine in the cup as his blood of the διαθήκης. It seems that Jesus conceived of his messianic work, fulfilled in his death, from the point of view of the fulfillment of the eschatological διαθήκης based on both Exod 24:8 and Jer 31:31.

To sum up, a new exodus theme is basic for all Scripture. Watts points out that Isaiah’s exodus typology is used for depicting Israel’s deliverance from exile, because he does not see the importance of the first exodus. Rather the new exodus results from merger of both the exodus from Egypt and the exodus from Babylon.⁵⁰ The former focuses on the paschal sacrifice to interpret the death of Jesus for deliverance; the latter introduces the promises of the prophets of a new covenant to produce a new exodus paradigm. It has been pointed out, therefore, that new exodus themes throughout the New Testament are eschatological redemption,⁵¹ the new Covenant,⁵² outpouring of the Spirit,⁵³ pilgrimage,⁵⁴ [and] the priestly kingship.⁵⁵

The Current State of New Exodus Studies in New Testament Theology

There is a growing interest in the new exodus motif. The following discussion examines how the New Testament is being read in the light of new exodus.

New Exodus in the Gospels

Matthew

Johnston examined the Old Testament background of Matt 2–4. He understood that in Matthew Israel’s redemptive history is repeated in the person who represents the new Israel, the Messiah Jesus.⁵⁶ In Micah’s promises, the one who would restore Israel’s dominion was a new David. This is described by Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea, and Ezekiel as a new exodus. Johnston focused on Israel’s saviour, but he failed to explore the death of Christ in the light of the Passover which was the clear setting of Jesus himself provided for its significance (Matt 26:17–19, 26–29).

Dennison saw that the transition from slavery to freedom performed in the Old Testament must be linked with the transition from death to life spoken in the New Testament.⁵⁷ He regarded Isa 53 as referring to vicarious suffering that would be the ransom-price of the people of God in the new exodus. He associated the innocent victim with Jesus, and understood that the new covenant was sealed by a fellowship Supper.⁵⁸ However, Dennison failed to observe the presence of references which reflect the promises of the Davidic prince being fulfilled in Jesus.

Mark

Piper identified the first exodus as a key to understanding both the Old and New Testaments.⁵⁹ He pointed out that both Isaiah and Hosea had used the exodus to interpret their own situation. According to him, Jesus is the second Moses, not primarily as Lawgiver, but as the leader of his people to the promised goal.⁶⁰ Jesus’s journeys into Phoenicia and Caesarea Philippi echo Israel’s wanderings and Piper believes that the fact that of all Jesus’s visits to Jerusalem only the last one is mentioned in Mark, and that it is described as the entry of a conqueror shows that it is regarded as the goal of this new exodus migration.

Piper conducted an extensive survey of the new exodus theme in the New Testament, but he did not identify the creativity of the early church in linking the new exodus promises of the eighth century prophets, with all of their theological motifs, to the Egyptian Exodus model of salvation.

Watts sees the introduction to the Gospel of Mark as being programmatic for the understanding of Mark’s Gospel as a whole.⁶¹ According to him, John the Baptist is Malachi’s Elijah who prepares the way for Yahweh’s long-delayed Isaianic new exodus coming. Watts pays more attention to the contribution of Isaiah and the prophetic expectation of a new exodus. He understands the two themes to be intersected in Mark’s account of the events of Jesus’s arrival and death in Jerusalem.⁶² The weaknesses of Watts’s proposal are: first, Isaiah’s new exodus theme is basic not only to Mark; it is seen in all writers of the New Testament. The New Testament repeatedly claims that a new and final redemption from slavery will take place in Jesus. Secondly, Watts does not pay adequate attention to the paschal theme itself, thus omitting the cultic interplay between the two exoduses made by the New Testament writers.

Luke

Manek⁶³ interpreted the gospel of Luke in the light of the new exodus theme. He linked the departure of Jesus from Jerusalem with the departure of the Jews from Egypt, both bringing judgment on those who did not believe. He pointed out that the forty days that Jesus spent with the disciples after his resurrection was echoed in the forty years spent in the wilderness by the Israelites before entering into their inheritance. However, Manek saw Moses as the antitype of Jesus, so he missed the promises of the Davidic prince at the beginning of the gospel. He also failed to see that Luke expanded the exodus typology to include the Babylonian exodus with its Davidic leader.

Garrett understood that for Luke the exodus from Egypt serves as a theological paradigm.⁶⁴ She argued that Luke regarded the death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus as an exodus because in these events Jesus, the one who is stronger, led the people out of bondage to Satan. She saw Jesus’s explanation of his exorcisms as a conquering of the strong one by one who is stronger in Luke 11:21–22 as an echo of Isa 53:12. However, she failed to see the death of Christ in the light of the Passover and the promises of Davidic prince being fulfilled in Jesus.

John

Boismard understood that the theme of the sending of the Christ by God is derived from the Old Testament (prophetic and wisdom tradition).⁶⁵ He argues that John’s Gospel attempts to show that Jesus is the new Moses predicted in Deut 18:18. According to Boismard, John styles Jesus as the prophet who was designed to evoke images of Moses. He went on to say that the first three of Jesus’s signs were performed so that the people might recognize the envoy from God.⁶⁶ He also noted that Jesus died on the very day of Passover, but he did not see the paschal significance of Jesus’s death.

Glasson pointed out that the messianic time was modelled upon the exodus and its sequel.⁶⁷ According to him, the coming deliverance was to be a repetition of the deliverance from Egypt, and thus there would be a second deliverer (the Messiah) comparable to the first (Moses). In other words, the mission of Moses was a shadow of that of Christ.⁶⁸ Glasson interpreted John’s Gospel in the light of the Egyptian Exodus. He did not appreciate the major contribution of the prophets to the new exodus and so, like many others, restricted his understanding largely to the Egyptian Exodus.

New Exodus in Acts

Strauss points out that the exodus image of Jesus (Luke 9:31) as a prophet like Moses (Acts 3:22; 7:37) may be seen as a reflection of Isaiah’s portrait of eschatological salvation. According to Strauss, Isaiah is the major source for Luke’s Christological construct. Therefore, the Isaianic new exodus serves as a way of integrating royal and prophetic traditions in the context of a drama of deliverance.⁶⁹ Strauss was concerned with the importance of the Davidic promise tradition. Then he explored how Luke conceives the Davidic promises to be fulfilled in Jesus in the narrative of Acts.⁷⁰ He pointed out that Jesus pours out salvation blessings upon his people, in his exalted status.⁷¹ However, Strauss failed to examine the significance of the Passover because of his main concern, which is that Jesus fulfilled the Davidic promises.

Pao⁷² points out that the entire Isaianic new exodus programme provides the structural framework for the narrative of Acts. He traces the importance of Isa 40:1–11 as a hermeneutical lens, arguing that the new exodus themes are found in the prologue of Isa 40–55, which brings a reversal to the judgment of Isa 6:9–10 by announcing the good news of salvation. What is significant is that Luke reverses the Isaianic reversal, so that the narrative begins with the proclamation of the salvation of God in Luke 3:6 and closes with judgment on the Jews who reject the message in Acts 28:26.⁷³ It reminds the readers to consider the themes that Luke develops in harmony with Isaiah. He does not relate it to the exodus accounts directly, but he uses Isaiah’s exodus image for illustrating Israel’s deliverance from exile. Pao concludes that Isaiah’s new exodus theme is basic for Acts.

New Exodus in the Epistles and Revelation

Goppelt identified Christ’s death with the slaughter of the Passover lambs in 1 Cor 5:6–8.⁷⁴ In doing so, he pointed out that, like the sacrifice of a Passover lamb, Christ’s death means a change that brings salvation, deliverance from death, release from slavery, and the beginning of something new. However, he did not observe that the deliverance from the kingdom of darkness is the fulfillment of the second exodus promises predicted by the prophets. He also failed to notice that the promise of the Davidic prince is fulfilled in Christ.

Stott understood that the nature of the death of Jesus was as a sacrifice for sin and that sin may be forgiven and put away by this unique sacrifice.⁷⁵ According to him, the term ἐξαγοράσῃ (redeem) in Gal 4:5 is used of the rescue of the Israelites from their Egyptian slavery in Acts 7:34. Christ gave himself as a sacrifice for our sins to deliver us from the present evil age. However, Stott saw the death of Jesus not in the light of the Passover, but in terms of the Day of Atonement. He also missed the second exodus promises foretold by the prophets.

Keesmaat examined Paul’s use of the Old Testament tradition in Rom 8:14–30 in the light of exodus as the major formative event, which had held a central place within Israelite historical consciousness.⁷⁶ Israel knew that God had acted for them in the past, so they could be sure that God would act similarly for them in the future. According to Keesmaat, the prophetic books anticipate God’s restoration of Israel in terms of a new exodus event. She also pointed out that the Passover was the central Israelite ritual which grounded Israelite identity in the exodus event. She pointed out that Jer 31:8–9 provided the matrix for the leading of God’s people in the context of a new Passover, claiming that there was a verbal link between Ephraim as first-born and Jesus as first-born in Rom 8:29. She summed up that the exodus motif was a recollection of the past which guided Israel’s actions in the present and provided hope for their future.⁷⁷

Casey pointed out that Deut 26:8–9 is a key for John, the writer of Revelation.⁷⁸ Casey saw that the exodus involved God’s redemption of Israel, his judgment upon her oppressors, and his granting of an inheritance to the nation. He regarded Jesus as a new and great paschal lamb, Christ as fulfilling the prediction concerning the Davidic prince. However, he seemed to only glance at the death of Christ in the light of the Passover, and noted only a limited presence of the Passover theme in other parts of the New Testament.

Holland pointed out that the Christ hymn in Col 1:15–20 has an introduction in vv. 12–14.⁷⁹ The introduction was based on the new exodus promises of being delivered from the kingdom over which Satan rules and being brought into the kingdom of light of which Christ is the Lord. According to Holland,⁸⁰ Christ’s status is not limited merely to representing his family in his work of redemption; he represents the whole of creation. Christ’s title as first-born was understood not ontologically but soteriologically. Therefore, Holland saw that Jesus died in the context of the Passover as King of the Jews. He also understood the promises of the Davidic prince foretold by prophets to be fulfilled in Jesus.

The Significance of the Paschal Setting in the Exodus

It has been argued that the contemporary context for New Testament teaching on sacrifice is both Greco-Roman and Jewish, for on one hand Christianity originated in the Jewish faith, whilst on the other hand it was preached and practised in a world where Greek culture and Roman power reigned supreme. Therefore, I will next deal with the theme of sacrifice in the first century.

Greco-Roman Tradition

Hengel pays attention to the theme of the dying hero, giving his life for the city and his friends.⁸¹ He understands that the hero dying for his people in Greece and Rome is often spoken of in sacrificial terms.⁸² He establishes that the statement the Messiah died for us is pre-Pauline and traces it back to the circle of Hellenists in Jerusalem.⁸³ Therefore, Hengel relates his view to the Maccabean heroes, who gained an everlasting name by dying, not just for their people, but for their God and his laws.⁸⁴ He also proposed that John 15:13 and Rom 5:7 should be interpreted in the light of this tradition. He believed that it came into Judaism from Greco-Roman traditions in the intertestamental period. Barrett⁸⁵ also related the death of Jesus to the death of the Maccabean martyrs because the Maccabean martyr prayed that his death would be an expiation for the nation’s sins.

Aqedah Tradition

As this was closely linked to the offering of Isaac, the prototype of all martyrs, it links into an extensive rabbinical theological structure of atonement. Vermes pointed out that Pseudo-Jonathan understood the whole of Gen 22 as a test of Isaac’s fidelity and Abraham’s faithfulness.⁸⁶ According to him, the targumic tradition about Isaac’s role in the sacrifice was already implicit in three works of the first century CE, that is, the Jewish Antiquities of Josephus,⁸⁷ 4 Maccabees⁸⁸ and Pseudo Philo’s Liber Antiquitatum.⁸⁹ Vermes noted that the atoning efficacy of all the sacrifices in which the lamb was immolated was thought to depend on the power of the sacrifice of Isaac.

Passover Tradition

Vermes’s claim has been challenged by Davies and Chilton in saying that our discussion of all the relevant passages in this source allows us the confident assertion that there is no evidence of the Aqedah to be found.⁹⁰ Holland has, furthermore, argued that Chilton and Davies have not made a correct assessment, for he believes that the Passover with the death of the lamb was the most dominant model for the New Testament writers in their interpretation of the significance of the death of Christ.⁹¹

Wellhausen,⁹² however, posited a new picture of the origin and development of the Passover to support his dating of the Pentateuchal sources. He pointed out that the Passover and the Feast of Unleavened Bread were unrelated prior to about 620 BCE. Gray⁹³ sought to isolate various ancient features of the Passover by focusing on its customs, accepting the validity of Wellhausen’s general approach. De Vaux⁹⁴ understood that the Passover began as the spring-time sacrifice of a young animal, not necessarily the firstborn, by nomadic or semi-nomadic shepherds in order to guarantee the prosperity of the flock.

Van Seters⁹⁵ rejected Wellhausen’s approach, and said that the Passover, as reflected in the earliest source D, was a one-day festival in the spring at a local sanctuary. After the slaughter of an animal from the flock or herd, there was a meal, eaten at night without unleavened bread. About a century and a half later, with the destruction of the temple, it was no longer possible to celebrate the Passover. He went on to say that as a result the Feast of Unleavened Bread was instituted by J as a substitute. He concluded that with the restoration of the temple after the exile, the revived Passover celebration was combined with the Feast of Unleavened Bread.

However, Haran⁹⁶ demonstrated, contra Wellhausen, that J knew of both feasts; there is no reason to delete the term pesah (Passover) in Exod 34:25. McConville⁹⁷ also pointed out that it is not necessary to remove, as Van Seters suggested, all references to unleavened bread in Deut 16. Rather, given the unanimity of the biblical tradition, there are surely good grounds for believing that both feasts were united from their birth.⁹⁸

With regard to the Old Testament, all the