Multiple Biological Activities of Unconventional Seed Oils

By Abdalbasit Adam Mariod

Multiple Biological Activities of Unconventional Seed Oils brings detailed knowledge concerning the biological properties of oils (antioxidant, antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, etc.), the content of individual substances with health-promoting properties, methods for biological properties assay, the influence of raw material quality and technological processes on the quality of oils, and possible raw materials and oil contaminants with adverse health effects. The book's chapters also highlight the unique properties of new oils, along with their biological activities.

Less than a decade ago, the vegetable oils on grocery store shelves were derived from conventional oil seeds e.g., cotton, groundnut, sesame, corn sunflower and soybean. However, as consumers began to understand how fat intake affects overall health, researchers, plant growers and food manufacturers started to produce oils from unconventional sources. This book highlights what we've learned in the process.

• Explores unconventional oils, their different sources, and where they grow worldwide
• Explains the medicinal uses of unconventional oils
• Details the biological activities, antioxidant and physico-chemical composition of unconventional oils

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jan 26, 2022
• ISBN: 9780323903264

Book preview

Chapter 1

Unconventional oils production, utilization worldwide

Haroon Elrasheid Tahir¹, Abdalbasit Adam Mariod², ³ and Zou Xiaobo¹,    ¹School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, P.R. China,    ²Indigenous Knowledge and Heritage Center, Ghibaish College of Science & Technology, Ghibaish, Sudan,    ³College of Sciences and Arts-Alkamil, University of Jeddah, Alkamil, Saudi Arabia

Abstract

The demand increased and the prices of edible oils increased as a result of the steady increase in the global population, which prompted the conduct of research to find alternative nontraditional sources of oils, especially in developing countries. Research has uncovered hundreds of unconventional plant seeds with oil suitable for edible or industrial purposes. Many of them are rich in polyunsaturated essential fatty acids, which prove useful as healthy oils. The present chapter will briefly summarize the methods of production and the uses of unconventional oil in food, biodiesel, and pharmaceutical. Overall, the chapter concludes that the uses of fruit seeds could not only contribute to health and wealth but also serve as an excellent way to reduce the waste disposal problem of agro-based industries.

Keywords

Unconventional oils; production; food uses; pharmaceutical uses; biodiesel uses; unconventional oilseeds

1.1 Introduction

Oils and fats refer to a class of biological molecules named lipids that are described by low solubility in water and high solubility in nonpolar solvents (Sabikhi & Sathish Kumar, 2012). Demand for plant oils in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and biodiesel industries is growing, due to the fact they are precious natural sources of lipophilic compounds. Natural origin compounds of products used in daily life have higher acceptability by using the global network when compared with their synthetic counterparts (Górnaś & Rudzińska, 2016). Palm, soybean, canola (rapeseed), sunflower seed, and palm kernel are the five major vegetable oils produced in the world (FAOSTAT, 2021). Moreover, the worldwide need for edible oils raises, the search for new or unconventional oils hastens. Particularly desirable are oil produce that grows in environments that most conventional oilseeds cannot, which include poor soil or drought. Many developing countries are looking for new oil-producing plants that flourish in their native climate and soil, increasing the wealth of agriculturalists and decreasing the nation’s dependence on imported oils. Furthermore, investors, processors, and consumers are seeking novel oils that have distinctive functional properties. Rice bran oil, Pequi oil, Pistachio oil, Allanblackia oil, and Jatropha oil represent the most promising or underutilized conventional oils that could increase the repertoire of vegetable oils available for food, cosmetic, or biodiesel uses (Ang, et al., 2015; Cassiday, 2018). There are numerous promising unconventional oil sources (e.g., annual plants, seeds herbs, vegetables, etc.) which still need further research and commercial application (Mariod 2005). For example, Acacia senegal (L.) seed oil (Nehdi, et al., 2012) and Capparis scabrida seed oil (Abreu-Naranjo, et al., 2020), pressed berry seed oils (Cheikhyoussef, et al., 2020), fig cultivars (Ficus carica L.) seeds oil (Hssaini, et al., 2020), Parkia filicoidea (Mkundi) seeds oil (Matthaus & Özcan, 2012), citrus seeds (Matthaus & Özcan, 2012), forage turnip (Raphanus sativus L.) oil (Silveira, et al., 2019) and Milo (Thespesia populnea L.) seed oil (Rashid, et al., 2011). Furthermore, an increasing quantity of the by-products produced from fruit processing industries, partly in the form of seeds, are commonly disposed of and might be used as sources of unconventional oil. Table 1.1 represents the list of conventional oils and their possible utilizations.

Table 1.1

1.2 Oil production methods

There are many preprocessing (cleaning, shelling, peeling, crushing, conditioning, flaking) are required before oil extraction from seeds. The main techniques used for unconventional oils include mechanical extraction (hydraulic press, screw press) and chemical extraction (solvent extraction). A simple mechanical press technology could be utilized for extracting the oil without additional processing. This technique is also described as cold pressing. The cold-pressing technique is not suitable for all types of seeds; some of the seeds required a complex process, for instance, a combination of pressing, cooking, and solvent extraction. The solvent extraction method has higher oil recovery efficiency (98%) than the mechanical technique (70%) that’s the essential factor of 5% usage of mechanical extraction technique (Srivastava, et al., 2021). The main parameters that affect the mechanical extraction method, that is, heat and pressure. It is an energy-intensive method that needs high fixed and operational cost investment with low oil recovery. The mechanical extraction technique is the common procedure for extracting oil from seeds. Generally, the expeller or ram press or engine-driven screw press is employed for expelling or pressing oilseeds (Anwar, et al., 2019). The amount of extracted oil depends on the types of seed extraction techniques. Nonetheless, oil extracted by mechanical technique extraction required additional processing for filtration and degumming. The solvent extraction method is obtained high recovery and cost-effectiveness when n-hexane in a ratio of 5:10 (solvent:oilseeds) having high ignition (264°C) and flash temperature (−18°C) (Anderson, 2011). Generally, the solvent extraction method is better than mechanical pressing due to the low supplementary costs and labor. Among the solvents used, hexane is the popular organic solvent for the extraction of oil due to the cost-effectiveness and low toxicity (Mahanta & Shrivastava, 2004). There are some more methods such as the microwave-assisted method (Jiao et al., 2014), ultrasound-assisted method (Goula et al., 2018), and supercritical CO2 extraction (Barrales et al., 2015). These techniques have been utilized for several types of oils seeds including pomegranate seeds oil, Preilla seeds oil, Sea mango oil, grape seeds and passion seeds oil, etc. these technologies have advantages such as vast extraction time, direct extraction ability, requires less solvent, lower energy consumption, and increase production rate and quality of extracted oil (Ramanadhan, 2005). Extraction of oil using enzymatic procedure using appropriate enzymes while crushing is attaining great interest due to its good environmental aspects for not generating volatile organic compounds (Jiao et al., 2014; Li et al., 2014; Goula et al., 2018). However, the major challenge of this technique is the cost of enzyme and it is required a long extraction time to release oil bodies (Mahanta & Shrivastava, 2004). Table 1.1 indicated the studies carried for oil extraction from various parts of plants or industrial by-products (e.g., seeds). It can be observed that most of the studies have found that chemical extraction methods were most convenient for the extraction of unconventional oil. The enzymatic extraction method is safe, green, and environmental aqueous extraction which is very essential for industrial purposes. The main extraction methods used for unconventional oil production are reported in Table 1.1.

1.3 Unconventional oil worldwide

The oil content of seeds can be influenced by extraction techniques; for instance, the average oil content of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds was 20.30% by pressing and of 26.70% by solvent extraction (Ixtaina et al., 2011). In a study, Goula et al. (2018) applied ultrasound-assisted aqueous enzymatic extraction of oil from pomegranate seeds. The results showed the oil rate achieved by aqueous enzymatic extraction (15.33% g dry seeds) was comparable to the rate achieved by other extraction procedures (4.29–25.11% g). Maceration in n-hexane with orbital shaking at 150 rpm for 6, 12, and 24 hour, with or without heat at 60°C, was used for rambutan seeds oil extraction (Lourith et al., 2016).

Scapin et al. (2017) compared solvent extraction, pressurized CO2 and compressed petroleum liquefied gas (LPG) for extraction of the chia oils. The highest oil content was achieved using hexane extraction followed by LPG (27.13% at conditions of 2.5 Mpa/40°C) while CO2 showed the lowest value (21.93%, at conditions of 25 MPa/60°C). The authors concluded that compressed LPG is a powerful solvent for the extraction of chia oil due to the high extraction rate and high antioxidant activity in a very short time. However, both types of solvents were capable of extracting oil rich in α-linolenic acid and bioactive compounds. In another work, very similar results were obtained when pressurized ethanol extraction (15 MPa, 35°C, 1 mL/min) (0.55 g/g) and ultrasound extraction (at 25°C) (0.60 g/g) techniques from the extraction of oil from passion fruit pulp (Ribeiro et al., 2020). Pereira et al. (2017) employed the subcritical compressed propane method to obtain the oil from sweet passion fruit (Passiflora alata Curtis) seeds. The extraction rate was also compared with ultrasound-assisted extraction and Soxhlet methods. Soxhlet using n-hexane showed the highest extraction rate (28.33%) followed by compressed propane (23.68%, at 2 MPa and 60°C) while ultrasound-assisted using ethanol showed the showed value (20.96%). Supercritical CO2 extraction alone or assisted with ultrasound were successfully used for the extraction of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis sp.) seeds oil (Barrales et al., 2015; dos Santos et al., 2019). Abaide et al. (2017) was extracted Avocado oil using supercritical CO2 and compressed liquefied petroleum gas. Compressed liquefied petroleum gas (at conditions of 293 K and 0.5 MPa, 10 minutes) recovered 60.5% oil (wet basis). Supercritical CO2 (at conditions of 313 K and 25 MPa, at 150 minutes) recovered 40 wt.% oil.

Comparative extractions were carried out by using Soxhlet extraction (using hexane), supercritical extraction, and by mechanical pressure techniques (Fiori et al., 2014). Based on this study, SC-CO2 method might be used as a green technique to extract grape seed oils rich in health benefits compounds from winemaking by-products. similar results were observed by Coelho et al., (2018). Rice bran oil is derived from the outward coating, or bran, of rice (Oryza sativa). Generally, rice brane oil is produced by mechanical pressing or solvent extraction with hexane or isopropanol, while other procedures such as supercritical CO2 extraction and microwave-assisted extraction are under examination (Shukla and Pratap, 2017).

For extraction of oil from oleaginous microorganisms (Trichosporon oleaginosus and an oleaginous fungal strain SKF-), several solvents including hexane, methanol, water, and chloroform/methanol (1:1 v/v) were analyzed to evaluate the appropriate solvent for oil extraction. Ultrasonication (50 kHz and power 2800 W) was compared with the common chloroform:methanol (2:1 v/v) extraction technique. The highest lipid content was 10.2% and 9.3% with water, 43.2% and 33.2% with hexane, 75.7% and 65.1% with methanol, 100% and 100% w/w biomass with chloroform/methanol was reached from T. oleaginosus and SKF-5 strain, respectively. These results showed that ultrasonication chloroform/methanol extraction could be used as a powerful technique for lipid extraction from the microorganisms.

Some other extraction techniques were used for oil extraction including laboratory-scale hydraulic press for Jatropha curcas and pennycress seeds oil extraction (Moser et al., 2009; Subroto et al., 2015), industrial extruder castor seeds oil extraction (Carlson et al., 1998; Berman et al., 2011), and microwave-assisted solvent extraction of sandbox (Hura crepitans) seed oil (Ibrahim et al., 2019). A few years ago, Amaranthus was exposed as a most promising plant genus that may be a source of high-quality unsaturated oil and many other valuable components. Amaranthus oil can be extracted using nonpolar organic solvents, such as hexane and petroleum ether using the Soxhlet method or with SC-CO2 procedure (Venskutonis & Kraujalis, 2013). The oil may also be derived using pressing methods; but, in this case, the extraction rates are remarkably lower. Generally, hexane and petroleum ether are the most popular solvents used for the production of unconventional oil from seeds (Table 1.1), but in some cases, other organic solvents such as acetone and ethanol have been reported for the extraction of pistachio oil and Xanthium sibiricum Patr (Chang et al., 2013; Guedes et al., 2017). Mechanical press of the seeds and pulp followed by the filtration has also been described (Table 1.1).

1.4 Utilization of unconventional oil

Several applications of unconventional oils have been reported (Fig. 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Production and utilization of unconventional oils.

1.4.1 Potential medicinal uses

Vegetable oils are commonly utilized in the cooking of food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and chemical industries because the chemical components of unconventional oils have distinctive chemical characteristics, and they are important and might expand the other edible oil sources. Some types of novel sources of edible oils are essential because they can be utilized for the production of functional foods due to their content of phytochemicals, which are well-known antioxidative agents (Ramadan & Moersel, 2006). Most of the unconventional oils are consumed in their natural state, therefore, maintaining various minor components, which are usually removed from other oils during refining and processing. These types of oils have high oxidative stability due to the high content of antioxidants such as tocopherols (Warner and Frankel, 1987). The major health benefit substances can have either prooxidative (e.g., free fatty acids and hydroperoxides) or antioxidative (e.g., tocopherols, phenols, and phospholipids) (Ramadan & Moersel, 2006). Previous studies showed that chia oil reduces the complications caused by high-fat diet induced obesity (Citelli et al., 2016), enhances glucose and insulin tolerance in obese Wistar rats (Marineli et al., 2015). Nowadays, the rise of the global incidence of obesity and obesity-associated disorders, such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases, has been attributed to metabolic imbalance and low grade and chronic inflammation (Poirier & Eckel, 2002; Dandona et al., 2004). A study carried out by Furlan et al. (2017) showed that the incorporating of Hass avocado-oil enhances postprandial metabolic responses to a hypercaloric-hyperlipidic meal in overweight subjects.

Wong et al. (2014) evaluated the cytotoxic activity of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) seed extract and oil against human cancer cell lines. The results demonstrated that kenaf seed extract and kenaf seed oil might be used as sources of natural anticancer materials. The workers suggested additional studies on using kenaf seeds and oil for antiproliferative properties. Serum lipid composition including cholesterol, triglycerides, and total lipid fatty acids was measured in rats consumed okra seed oil at a level of 10% in the casein-based diet which was suitable regarding vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients (Srinivasa Rao et al., 1991). The control group was ingested with a casein-based diet in which groundnut oil was the source of fat. The serum lipid composition of the treated and control group was monitored for 90 days. The finding revealed that the serum cholesterol level of rats feeding with okra seed oil was substantially lower as compared to the control group. These results proved that okra seed oil consumption has a potential hypocholesterolemic effect (Srinivasa Rao et al., 1991). In vivo studies showed that mustard, rapeseed oils, low and high in erucic acid and corn oil could reduce cardiac risk factors (Watkins et al., 1995).

1.4.2 Potential food uses

Recently, there is a great interest in the consumption and commercial utilization of Allanblackia (Clusiaceae) seed oil. The European Food Safety Authority confirmed that Allanblackia oil is suitable for human consumption (Crockett, 2015). The utilization of Allanblackia oil differs according to the county in which the species produced. In some African countries such as Tanzania, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and parts of Ghana the oil is used for cooking. The excellent physicochemical properties of oils (including solid at room temperature; high stearic acid content) provide food products that contain its (i.e., vegetable-based dairy products, ice cream, spreads) health benefits compare with other oil that contains higher concentrations of lauric, myristic, and/or palmitic acids, which can increase blood cholesterol levels (Crockett, 2015). Also, a previous report showed that it can be used as an alternative for cocoa butter during the production of chocolate (Pye-Smith, 2009). The bioactive profile of Allanblackia seed oils for the presence, identity and/or quantity of potentially bioactive secondary metabolites, and pharmacological assessment of identified compounds indicate key guidelines for future research (Crockett, 2015). In 2014, Unilever produced the Becel Gold brand of margarine in Sweden, which comprises Allanblackia oil (Cassiday, 2018).

In a study, the potential use of Cucumis melo L. seeds as a new source of plant oils was investigated (Mallek-Ayadi et al., 2018). The outcome of the study indicated that melon seeds oil could be utilized as a substitute of plant oil, which might serve as raw material for food applications. Moreover, the melon seed oil is commonly used as cooking oil in some countries in Africa and the Middle East (Hemavatahy, 1992; Mallek-Ayadi et al., 2018).

In a study, Nadeem et al. (2017) reported the feasibility of incorporating the chia seed oil into margarine. In this study, up to 20% of chia oil addition revealed no negative impacts regarding storage. Besides, the fatty acid composition was improved, with higher ω-3 fatty acid contents and more antioxidant stability. Chia seed oil was also used in ice cream production (Ullah et al., 2017). Black cumin and coriander oils were used as natural antioxidants to improve the thermal stability of high linoleic corn oil (Mohamed et al., 2014). rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum) is an essential fruit tree in Thailand, mainly the cultivar Rongrien. It seeds found to rich in edible fat with a bitter taste that might be an appropriate alternative in the food industry (Solís-Fuentes et al., 2020). Based on the findings of Solís-Fuentes et al. (2010), rambutan seed fat could be used in food processing (Solís-Fuentes et al., 2010). The uses of some unconventional seeds, such as hemp, radish, terebinth, stinging nettle, and laurel enhance the quality, stability, and safety of food products based on the chemical composition, etc. (Uluata & Özdemir, 2012). More recently rice bran oil is utilized as a novel carbon source for microbial production of vitamin B12 (Hedayati et al., 2020). A previous study showed that the Pequi oil can be enzymatically modified using Lipozyme in order to incorporate stearic acid in the sn-1,3 position of triacylglycerols and produce a cocoa butter-like fat (Facioli & Gonçalves, 1998).

1.4.3 Potential cosmetic uses

Recently, the oil of Allanblackia was used to produce soap (Adubofuor et al., 2013). Linseed (also known as flaxseed) with oil content raged between 36% and 40%, usually used for the production of many products such as paints, varnishes, inks, soap, etc. (El-Beltagi et al., 2007; Nagaraj, 2009; Kasote et al., 2013). Recently, great attention has been given to agricultural residues as sources of natural antioxidant products to produce sustainable products appropriate for industrial purposes; specifically for personal health products that are in high demand, comprising cosmetics, to substitute artificial raw constituents. Lourith et al. (2016) was studied the potential use of rambutan seed fat as cosmetics components. The results indicate the possibility of using rambutan seed fat for cosmetic products and its appropriateness as novel raw material for the personal care industry. Furthermore, rambutan seed fat is similar to other vegetable oils and cosmetic constituents and is compatible with other cosmetic materials. According to the results of a study carried out by Górnaś et al. (2013), the cold-pressed Japanese quince seed oil could be used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Neem seed oil was used as biopesticides for controlling homopterous sucking pests of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) (Indira Gandhi et al., 2006). However, further field research is required to confirm it and to understand the mechanism. The oil extracted from the Pequi kernel is characterized by a pleasant light flavor and it is utilized in cosmetic production (Guedes et al., 2017).

1.4.4 Potential biodiesel fuels uses

A previous study showed that pennycress and meadowfoam-derived biodiesel fuels were mixed with the other biodiesels to simultaneously ameliorate cold flow, oxidative stability, and viscosity shortages inherent to the individual fuels (Moser, 2016). Overall, complementary mixing improved fuel characteristics including cold flow, kinematic viscosity, and oxidative stability of biodiesel. In a study, biodiesel production from yellow horn (Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge.) seed oil utilizing ion exchange resin as a heterogeneous catalyst was examined (Li et al., 2012). The outcome showed that microwave-assisted transesterification procedure catalyzed by high alkaline anion exchange resin was a green, effective and low-cost technique for biodiesel production.

Moser and Vaughn (2010) reported the feasibility of using Camelina sativa oil as biodiesel and as blend components in ultra-low-sulfur diesel fuel. In this study, the quality of Camelina oil alkyl esters, both pure and mixed with petrodiesel, was comparable to other ordinarily encountered biodiesel fuels, for example, soybean, canola, and palm oil methyl esters. Castor (Ricinus communis L.) oil is one of the most promising unconventional nonedible oil due to high seed production and produce. However, few types of research are conducted on the potential use in biodiesel as it neat or mixed with petrodiesel, many of which are due to its extremely high content of ricinoleic acid (toxic to humans and animals) (Berman et al., 2011). The potential of utilization of papaya seed oil and stone fruit kernel oil as nonedible feedstock for biodiesel production has been reported (Anwar et al., 2019). Other popular unconventional oils used in biodiesel include Calophyllum inophyllum, desert date, Moringa oleifera, rubber seed, fish oil, jojoba, neem, Eruca sativa, Jatropha curcas, papaya seed oil, Pongamia pinnata, Madhuca indica, Salvadora oleoides, and tobacco apricot seed (Usta, 2005; Godiganur et al., 2009; Avinash et al., 2014; Anwar et al., 2019). In a study, the future potential in the production of biodiesel of tomato seed oil and tobacco seed oil has been reported (Panoutsou et al., 2008). Anjum et al. (2019) reported that the Argemone mexicana seed oil biodiesel may use as a potential substitute for natural diesel fuel. Some unconventional oils used in feedstocks have been studied include Egusi (Colocynthis citrullus L.) seed kernel oil (Giwa et al., 2014); pennycress seeds oil (Moser et al., 2009); Camelina seeds oil, (Moser & Vaughn, 2010); castor seeds oil (Carlson et al., 1998; Berman et al., 2011); pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) seed oil (Schinas et al., 2009); tobacco seed oil (Panoutsou et al., 2008); tomato seed oil (Giannelos et al., 2002; Panoutsou et al., 2008); Syagrus romanzoffiana oil (Moreira et al., 2013); Moringa seeds oil (Rashid et al., 2008); kenaf oil (Knothe, Razon et al., 2013) and meadowfoam seed oil (Carlson et al., 1998). All of these unconventionally produced biodiesel with fatty esters of different chain lengths and unsaturation and, hence, properties. More recently, the microwave-assisted solvent extraction of nonedible sandbox (Hura crepitans) seed oil was evaluated (Ibrahim et al., 2019). Based on the findings of this study, sandbox seed oil could serve as feedstock for biodiesel and other oleochemical production. Another nonedible oil was obtained from Firmiana platanifolia L.f. and Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.) were successfully used as components of biodiesel production (Chang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2015; Zanetti et al., 2019). The findings showed that F. platanifolia L.f. is a prospective species to be utilized as a biodiesel feedstock in China. Hoang et al. (2021) reported the potential utilization of blend comprising 20% rice bran oil biodiesel and 80% petrodiesel fuel, both in volume might be the effective combination in view of the techno-economic aspects of diesel engines. Oils of oleaginous microorganisms are a good substitute to vegetable oils for biodiesel production. In a study, fungus Epicoccum purpurascens AUMC5615 isolated from Egypt presented higher oil content (80%) and carotenoids especially when grown on 4% sucrose under continuous illumination (Koutb & Morsy, 2011). The fatty acid profile of this oil encourage the use of this promising fungal in biodiesel production.

1.5 Conclusion

This chapter summarizing the various data on the production of conventional oils as well as their utilization in food, medicinal, pharmaceuticals, biodiesel, and other uses. Most of the fruit seeds are obtained from edible fruits as a by-product and they have the potentials to be utilized directly in the food and pharmaceutical industries. Therefore, it could promote environmental sustainability, more cost-effective utilization of harvested plant products, and improved economic profits. The utilization of fruit by-product can not only reduce the aggregation of waste but it also may make extra income for the fruit processing enterprises. Some of the seeds are rich in oil and may be used as sources of functional oils and biodiesel components. However, many seeds are still required comprehensive research before being used in food industries and other industrial purposes. The solvent extraction method is the main technique used for the production of unconventional oils from seeds, however, other techniques could be effectively used for the production of oils rich in functional compounds such as tocopherol and polyphenol compounds.

Due to the rapid development, the worldwide need for petrodiesel for diesel engines is growing as of the limited reserves of fossil fuels, increasing prices of crude oils, and environmental concerns. The utilization of vegetable oil as the component of biodiesel production is not appropriate as the need for edible vegetable oils is greatly increasing. Thus, great attention has been given to alternative feedstocks such as unconventional oils, which will not lead to the food crisis as a result of economic imbalance.

Overall, we believe this chapter will be a good guideline to identify unconventional oils with their oil contents for future food, pharmaceutical biodiesel industries.

References

Abaide et al., 2017 Abaide ER, Zabot GL, Tres MV, et al. Yield, composition, and antioxidant activity of avocado pulp oil extracted by pressurized fluids. Food and Bioproducts Processing. 2017;102:289–298.

Abreu-Naranjo et al., 2020 Abreu-Naranjo R, Ramirez-Huila WN, Reyes Mera JJ, Banguera DV, León-Camacho M. Physico-chemical characterisation of Capparis scabrida seed oil and pulp, a potential source of eicosapentaenoic acid. Food Bioscience. 2020;36:100624.

Adubofuor et al., 2013 Adubofuor J, Sefah W, Oldham JH. Nutrient composition of Allanblackia paviflora seed kernels and oil compared with some plant fats and oils and application of the oil in soap preparation. Journal of Cereals and Oilseeds. 2013;4(1):1–9.

Amato et al., 2015 Amato M, Caruso MC, Guzzo F, et al. Nutritional quality of seeds and leaf metabolites of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) from Southern Italy. European Food Research and Technology. 2015;241(5):615–625.

Anderson, 2011 Anderson G. Solvent Extraction 2011; http://lipidlibrary.aocs.org/OilsFats/content.cfm?ItemNumber=40337.

Ang et al., 2015 Ang GT, Ooi SN, Tan KT, Lee KT, Mohamed AR. Optimization and kinetic studies of sea mango (Cerbera odollam) oil for biodiesel production via supercritical reaction. Energy Conversion and Management. 2015;99:242–251.

Anjum et al., 2019 Anjum SS, Prakash O, Pal A. Conversion of non-edible Argemone mexicana seed oil into biodiesel through the transesterification process. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. 2019;41(19):2356–2363.

Anwar et al., 2019 Anwar M, Rasul MG, Ashwath N, Nabi MDN. The potential of utilising papaya seed oil and stone fruit kernel oil as non-edible feedstock for biodiesel production in Australia—A review. Energy Reports. 2019;5:280–297.

Avinash et al., 2014 Avinash A, Subramaniam D, Murugesan A. Bio-diesel—A global scenario. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2014;29:517–527.

Ayerza, 2009 Ayerza R. The seed’s protein and oil content, fatty acid composition, and growing cycle length of a single genotype of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) as affected by environmental factors. Journal of Oleo Science. 2009;58(7):347–354.

Barrales et al., 2015 Barrales FM, Rezende CA, Martínez J. Supercritical CO2 extraction of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis sp.) seed oil assisted by ultrasound. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids. 2015;104:183–192.

Berman et al., 2011 Berman P, Nizri S, Wiesman Z. Castor oil biodiesel and its blends as alternative fuel. Biomass and Bioenergy. 2011;35(7):2861–2866.

Carlson et al., 1998 Carlson KD, Phillips BS, Isbell TA, Nelsen TC. Extraction of oil from meadowfoam flakes. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. 1998;75(10):1429–1436.

Caro et al. (2020) Caro Y, Petit T, Grondin I, et al. Chemical characterization of unconventional palm oils from Hyophorbe indica and two other endemic Arecaceae species from Reunion Island. Natural Product Research. 2020;34(1):93–101.

Cassiday, 2018 Cassiday, L., (2018). Unconventional oils, Inform. Available from: http://www.fao.org.

Chakraborty and Baruah, 2013 Chakraborty M, Baruah DC. Production and characterization of biodiesel obtained from Sapindus mukorossi kernel oil. Energy. 2013;60:159–167.

Chang et al., 2013 Chang F, Hanna MA, Zhang D-J, et al. Production of biodiesel from non-edible herbaceous vegetable oil: Xanthium sibiricum Patr. Bioresource Technology. 2013;140:435–438.

Cheikhyoussef et al., 2020 Cheikhyoussef A, Cheikhyoussef N, Rahman A, Maroyi A. Chapter 24—Cold pressed berry seed oils. In: Ramadan MF, ed. Cold Pressed Oils. Academic Press 2020;277–287.

Citelli et al., 2016 Citelli M, Fonte-Faria T, Vargas-Silva S, Barja-Fidalgo C. Dietary supplementation with chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil reduces the complications caused by high fat diet-induced obesity. The FASEB Journal. 2016;30 907.920-907.920.

Coelho et al., 2018 Coelho JP, Filipe RM, Robalo MP, Stateva RP. Recovering value from organic waste materials: Supercritical fluid extraction of oil from industrial grape seeds. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids. 2018;141:68–77.

Crockett, 2015 Crockett SL. Allanblackia oil: Phytochemistry and use as a functional food. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2015;16(9):22333–22349.

Dandona et al., 2004 Dandona P, Aljada A, Bandyopadhyay A. Inflammation: The link between insulin resistance, obesity and diabetes. Trends in Immunology. 2004;25(1):4–7.

dos Santos et al., 2019 dos Santos LC, Bitencourt RG, dos Santos P, de Tarso P, Vieira e Rosa, Martínez J. Solubility of passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims) seed oil in supercritical CO2. Fluid Phase Equilibria. 2019;493:174–180.

El-Beltagi et al., 2007 El-Beltagi H, Salama Z, El-Hariri D. Evaluation of fatty acids profile and the content of some secondary metabolites in seeds of different flax cultivars (Linum usitatissimum L.).". General and Applied Plant Physiology. 2007;33(3-4):187–202.

Evon et al., 2013 Evon P, Amalia Kartika I, Cerny M, Rigal L. Extraction of oil from jatropha seeds using a twin-screw extruder: Feasibility study. Industrial Crops and Products. 2013;47:33–42.

Facioli and Gonçalves, 1998 Facioli NL, Gonçalves LAG. Modificação por via enzimática da composição triglicerídica do óleo de piqui (Caryocar brasiliense Camb). Química Nova. 1998;21:16–19.

FAOSTAT, 2021 FAOSTAT (2021). Production of major vegetable oils worldwide from 2012/13 to 2020/2021. Accesssed at 31-3-2021.

Fiori et al., 2014 Fiori L, Lavelli V, Duba KS, Sri Harsha PSC, Mohamed HB, Guella G. Supercritical CO2 extraction of oil from seeds of six grape cultivars: Modeling of mass transfer kinetics and evaluation of lipid profiles and tocol contents. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids. 2014;94:71–80.

Furlan et al., 2017 Furlan CPB, Valle SC, Östman E, Maróstica MR, Tovar J. Inclusion of Hass avocado-oil improves postprandial metabolic responses to a hypercaloric-hyperlipidic meal in overweight subjects. Journal of Functional Foods. 2017;38:349–354.

Giannelos et al., 2002 Giannelos PN, Zannikos F, Stournas S, Lois E, Anastopoulos G. Tobacco seed oil as an alternative diesel fuel: Physical and chemical properties. Industrial Crops and Products. 2002;16(1):1–9.

Giwa et al., 2014 Giwa SO, Chuah LA, Adam NM. Fuel properties and rheological behavior of biodiesel from egusi (Colocynthis citrullus L.) seed kernel oil. Fuel Processing Technology. 2014;122:42–48.

Godiganur et al., 2009 Godiganur S, Suryanarayana Murthy CH, Reddy RP. 6BTA 5.9 G2-1 Cummins engine performance and emission tests using methyl ester mahua (Madhuca indica) oil/diesel blends. Renewable Energy. 2009;34(10):2172–2177.

Górnaś and Rudzińska, 2016 Górnaś P, Rudzińska M. Seeds recovered from industry by-products of nine fruit species with a high potential utility as a source of unconventional oil for biodiesel and cosmetic and pharmaceutical sectors. Industrial Crops and Products. 2016;83:329–338.

Górnaś et al., 2014 Górnaś P, Rudzińska M, Segliņa D. Lipophilic composition of eleven apple seed oils: A promising source of unconventional oil from industry by-products. Industrial Crops and Products. 2014;60:86–91.

Górnaś et al., 2013 Górnaś P, Siger A, Segliņa D. Physicochemical characteristics of the cold-pressed Japanese quince seed oil: New promising unconventional bio-oil from by-products for the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry. Industrial Crops and Products. 2013;48:178–182.

Goula et al., 2018 Goula AM, Papatheodorou A, Karasavva S, Kaderides K. Ultrasound-assisted aqueous enzymatic extraction of oil from pomegranate seeds. Waste and Biomass Valorization. 2018;9(1):1–11.

Guedes et al., 2017 Guedes AMM, Antoniassi R, de Faria-Machado AF. Pequi: A Brazilian fruit with potential uses for the fat industry. OCL. 2017;24(5):D507.

Hedayati et al., 2020 Hedayati R, Hosseini M, Najafpour GD. Optimization of semi-anaerobic vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) production from rice bran oil using Propionibacterium freudenreichii PTCC1674.". Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology. 2020;23:101444.

Hemavatahy, 1992 Hemavatahy J. Lipid composition of melon (Cucumis melo) kernel. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 1992;5(1):90–95.

Hoang et al., 2021 Hoang AT, Tabatabaei M, Aghbashlo M, et al. Rice bran oil-based biodiesel as a promising renewable fuel alternative to petrodiesel: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2021;135:110204.

Hssaini et al., 2020 Hssaini L, Hanine H, Charafi J, et al. First report on fatty acids composition, total phenolics and antioxidant activity in seeds oil of four fig cultivars (Ficus carica L.) grown in Morocco. OCL. 2020;27:8.

Ibrahim et al., 2019 Ibrahim AP, Omilakin RO, Betiku E. Optimization of microwave-assisted solvent extraction of non-edible sandbox (Hura crepitans) seed oil: A potential biodiesel feedstock. Renewable Energy. 2019;141:349–358.

Indira Gandhi et al., 2006 Indira Gandhi P, Gunasekaran K, Sa T. Neem oil as a potential seed dresser for managing homopterous sucking pests of Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench). Journal of Pest Science. 2006;79(2):103–111.

Ixtaina et al., 2011 Ixtaina VY, Martínez ML, Spotorno V, et al. Characterization of chia seed oils obtained by pressing and solvent extraction. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2011;24(2):166–174.

Jiao et al., 2014 Jiao J, Li Z-G, Gai Q-Y, et al. Microwave-assisted aqueous enzymatic extraction of oil from pumpkin seeds and evaluation of its physicochemical properties, fatty acid compositions and antioxidant activities. Food Chemistry. 2014;147:17–24.

Kasote et al., 2013 Kasote DM, Badhe YS, Hegde MV. Effect of mechanical press oil extraction processing on quality of linseed oil. Industrial Crops and Products. 2013;42:10–13.

Knothe, Razon et al., 2013 Knothe G, Razon LF, Bacani FT. Kenaf oil methyl esters. Industrial Crops and Products. 2013;49:568–572.

Kostić et al., 2013 Kostić MD, Joković NM, Stamenković OS, Rajković KM, Milić PS, Veljković VB. Optimization of hempseed oil extraction by n-hexane. Industrial Crops and Products. 2013;48:133–143.

Koutb and Morsy, 2011 Koutb M, Morsy FM. A potent lipid producing isolate of Epicoccum purpurascens AUMC5615 and its promising use for biodiesel production. Biomass and Bioenergy. 2011;35(7):3182–3187.

Li et al., 2012 Li J, Fu Y-J, Qu X-J, et al. Biodiesel production from yellow horn (Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge.) seed oil using ion exchange resin as heterogeneous catalyst. Bioresource Technology. 2012;108:112–118.

Li et al., 2014 Li Y, Zhang Y, Sui X, Zhang Y, Feng H, Jiang L. Ultrasound-assisted aqueous enzymatic extraction of oil from perilla (Perilla frutescens L.) seeds. CyTA—Journal of Food. 2014;12(1):16–21.

Loumouamou, Binaki et al., (2014) Loumouamou BW, Binaki AF, Silou T. Oleaginous character and profiles in fatty acids and in triacylglycerols of the seeds of Allanblackia floribunda Oliv of Congo. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology. 2014;6(3):308–315.

Lourith et al., 2016 Lourith N, Kanlayavattanakul M, Mongkonpaibool K, Butsaratrakool T, Chinmuang T. Rambutan seed as a new promising unconventional source of specialty fat for cosmetics. Industrial Crops and Products. 2016;83:149–154.

Mahanta and Shrivastava, 2004 Mahanta, P. and A. Shrivastava (2004). Technology development of bio-diesel as an energy alternative. Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology.

Mallek-Ayadi et al., 2018 Mallek-Ayadi S, Bahloul N, Kechaou N. Chemical composition and bioactive compounds of Cucumis melo L seeds: Potential source for new trends of plant oils. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2018;113:68–77.

Marineli et al., 2015 Marineli Rd S, Moura CS, Moraes ÉA, et al. Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) enhances HSP, PGC-1α expressions and improves glucose tolerance in diet-induced obese rats. Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.). 2015;31(5):740–748.

Mariod, 2005 Mariod AA. Investigations on the oxidative stability of some unconventional Sudanese oils, traditionally used in human nutrition Germany: University of Münster; 2005; PhD thesis. Münster.

Matthaus and Özcan, 2012 Matthaus B, Özcan M. Chemical evaluation of citrus seeds, an agro-industrial waste, as a new potential source of vegetable oils. Grasas y aceites. 2012;63(3):313–320.

Moazzami Farida et al., 2016 Moazzami Farida SH, Radjabian T, Ranjbar M, Salami SA, Rahmani N, Ghorbani A. Fatty acid patterns of seeds of some salvia species from iran—A chemotaxonomic approach. Chemistry & Biodiversity. 2016;13(4):451–458.

Mohamed et al., 2014 Mohamed KM, Elsanhoty RM, Hassanien MFR. Improving thermal stability of high linoleic corn oil by blending with black cumin and coriander oils. International Journal of Food Properties. 2014;17(3):500–510.

Moreira et al., 2013 Moreira MAC, Payret Arrúa ME, Antunes AC, et al. Characterization of Syagrus romanzoffiana oil aiming at biodiesel production. Industrial Crops and Products. 2013;48:57–60.

Moser, 2016 Moser BR. Fuel property enhancement of biodiesel fuels from common and alternative feedstocks via complementary blending. Renewable Energy. 2016;85:819–825.

Moser et al., 2009 Moser BR, Knothe G, Vaughn SF, Isbell TA. Production and evaluation of biodiesel from field pennycress (Thlaspi arvense L.) Oil. Energy & Fuels. 2009;23(8):4149–4155.

Moser and Vaughn, 2010 Moser BR, Vaughn SF. Evaluation of alkyl esters from Camelina sativa oil as biodiesel and as blend components in ultra low-sulfur diesel fuel. Bioresource Technology. 2010;101(2):646–653.

Mouni, Njine et al. (2011) Mouni G, Njine C, Pengou M, Ngameni E. Physicochemical analysis of the Cameroonian Allanblanckia floribunda oliver seeds oil extract. La Rivista Italliana delle Sostanze Grasse. 2011;88:38–45.

Nadeem et al., 2017 Nadeem M, Imran M, Taj I, Ajmal M, Junaid M. Omega-3 fatty acids, phenolic compounds and antioxidant characteristics of chia oil supplemented margarine. Lipids in Health and Disease. 2017;16(1):102.

Nagaraj, 2009 Nagaraj G. Linseed.". Oil seeds, properties, processing, products and procedures linseed 2009;123 New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, India.

Nehdi et al., 2012 Nehdi IA, Sbihi H, Tan CP, Zarrouk H, Khalil MI, Al-Resayes SI. Characteristics, composition and thermal stability of Acacia senegal (L.) Willd seed oil. Industrial Crops and Products. 2012;36(1):54–58.

Panoutsou et al., 2008 Panoutsou C, Namatov I, Lychnaras V, Nikolaou A. Biodiesel options in Greece. Biomass and Bioenergy. 2008;32(6):473–481.

Pengou, Noumi et al. (2013) Pengou M, Noumi GB, Ngameni E. Fatty acid composition and some physicochemical properties of oils from Allanblackia gabonensis and A. stanerana kernels. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. 2013;90(1):27–32.

Pereira et al., 2017 Pereira MG, Hamerski F, Andrade EF, Scheer Ad P, Corazza ML. Assessment of subcritical propane, ultrasound-assisted and Soxhlet extraction of oil from sweet passion fruit (Passiflora alata Curtis) seeds. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids. 2017;128:338–348.

Poirier and Eckel, 2002 Poirier P, Eckel RH. Obesity and cardiovascular disease. Current Atherosclerosis Reports. 2002;4(6):448–453.

Pradhan et al., 2011 Pradhan RC, Mishra S, Naik SN, Bhatnagar N, Vijay VK. Oil expression from Jatropha seeds using a screw press expeller. Biosystems Engineering. 2011;109(2):158–166.

Purohit et al., 2021 Purohit S, Kalita D, Barik CR, Sahoo L, Goud VV. Evaluation of thermophysical, biochemical and antibacterial properties of unconventional vegetable oil from Northeast India. Materials Science for Energy Technologies. 2021;4:81–91.

Pye-Smith, 2009 Pye-Smith, C. (2009). Seeds of hope: A public-private partnership to domesticate a native tree, Allanblackia, is transforming lives in rural Africa, World Agroforestry Centre.

Ramadan and Moersel, 2006 Ramadan MF, Moersel J-T. Screening of the antiradical action of vegetable oils. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2006;19(8):838–842.

Ramanadhan, 2005 Ramanadhan, B. (2005). Microwave extraction of essential oils (from black pepper and coriander) at 2.46 Ghz. University of Saskatchewan, Canada. MSc. Thesis.

Rashid et al., 2011 Rashid U, Anwar F, Knothe G. Biodiesel from milo (Thespesia populnea L.) seed oil. Biomass and Bioenergy. 2011;35(9):4034–4039.

Rashid et al., 2008 Rashid U, Anwar F, Moser BR, Knothe G. Moringa oleifera oil: A possible source of biodiesel. Bioresource Technology. 2008;99(17):8175–8179.

Ribeiro et al., 2020 Ribeiro DN, Alves FMS, dos Santos Ramos VH, et al. Extraction of passion fruit (Passiflora cincinnata Mast.) pulp oil using pressurized ethanol and ultrasound: Antioxidant activity and kinetics. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids. 2020;165:104944.

Sabikhi and Sathish Kumar, 2012 Sabikhi L, Sathish Kumar MH. 4—Fatty acid profile of unconventional oilseeds. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. 2012;67:141–184.

Saloua et al., 2010 Saloua F, Saber C, Hedi Z. Methyl ester of [Maclura pomifera (Rafin.) Schneider] seed oil: Biodiesel production and characterization. Bioresource Technology. 2010;101(9):3091–3096.

Scapin et al., 2017 Scapin G, Abaide ER, Nunes LF, et al. Effect of pressure and temperature on the quality of chia oil extracted using pressurized fluids. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids. 2017;127:90–96.

Schinas et al., 2009 Schinas P, Karavalakis G, Davaris C, et al. Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.) seed oil as an alternative feedstock for the production of biodiesel in Greece. Biomass and Bioenergy.