Capturing Carbon

By International Renewable Energy Agency IRENA

This technical paper explores the status and potential of carbon capture and storage, carbon capture and utilisation and carbon dioxide removal technologies and their roles alongside renewables in the deep decarbonisation of energy systems

• Language: English
• Publisher: IRENA
• Release date: Jan 1, 2022
• ISBN: 9789292603885

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© IRENA 2021

Unless otherwise stated, material in this publication may be freely used, shared, copied, reproduced, printed and/or stored, provided that appropriate acknowledgement is given of the author(s) as the source and IRENA as the copyright holder. Material in this publication attributed to third parties may be subject to separate terms of use and restrictions, and appropriate permissions from these third parties may need to be secured before any use of such material.

ISBN 978-92-9260-366-3

eBook ISBN 978-92-9260-388-5

Citation: Gielen, D. (2021), Critical minerals for the energy transition, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi.

About IRENA

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) serves as the principal platform for international cooperation, a centre of excellence, a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge, and a driver of action on the ground to advance the transformation of the global energy system. An intergovernmental organisation established in 2011, IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy, including bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy, in the pursuit of sustainable development, energy access, energy security and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity. www.irena.org

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Carlo Papa (Enel Foundation), Hans De Keulenaer (International Copper Association), and Efstathios Peteves, Evangelos Tzimas and Samuel Carrara (European Commission Joint Research Centre) for their valuable expert input and information leads. All conclusions, errors and shortcomings in this technical brief are the sole responsibility of the author.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

WHAT ARE CRITICAL MATERIALS?

SCARCITY INDICATORS: SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM ASPECTS

STRATEGIES TO MITIGATE CRITICAL MATERIALS DEPENDENCIES

MATERIAL DEMAND PROJECTIONS AND PROSPECTS

HOW WILL INNOVATION AFFECT DEMAND FOR CRITICAL MATERIALS?

GEOPOLITICAL ASPECTS

CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

FIGURES

Figure 1: Projections of demand for battery materials

Figure 2: Cathode material scenarios, 2020-2040

Figure 3: Typical car battery pack composition

Figure 4: Trends in PV module manufacturing, 2000-2020

Figure 5: Global annual PV material demand in 2030 and 2050 compared with current demand levels, in low-, mid- and high-demand scenarios

Figure 6: Scenarios for use of permanent magnets in wind turbines

Figure 7: Projections for rare earth permanent magnet (PM) use in electric vehicles, 2020-2030

TABLES

Table 1: Current supply and projected 2050 demand for a 1.5°C scenario

Table 2: Material usage estimates for different types of wind turbine

Table 3: Copper use (semi-applications) in 2020

BOXES

Box 1: Reserves versus resources

Box 2: Subsea metals mining

ABBREVIATIONS

Al aluminium

Ag silver

Cd cadmium

Cu copper

DD direct drive

DFIG double fed induction generator

EESG electrically excited synchronous generator

EVs electric vehicles

Ge germanium

GB gearbox

Gt gigatonne

GW gigawatt

HDS high-demand scenario

In indium

ISA International Seabed Authority

kg kilogram

kt kilotonne

kWh kilowatt-hour

LCE lithium carbonate equivalent

LDS low-demand scenario

LFP lithium iron phosphate

LMO lithium manganese oxide

LNO lithium nickel oxide

MDS mid-demand scenario

Mono-Si monocrystalline silicon

Mt megatonne

Multi-Si multicrystalline silicon

NCA lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide

NCM lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide

NCMA lithium nickel cobalt manganese aluminium oxide

NdFeB Neodymium-iron-boron

NiMH nickel metal hybride

PM permanente magnet

PMSG permanent magnet synchronous generator

PV solar photovoltaic

rpm revolutions per minute

Te tellurium

TWh terawatt-hour

US United States of America

USGS United States