Terra non Firma Earth: Plate Tectonics is a Myth

By James Maxlow

This book summarises research into Expansion Tectonics and is suitable for all persons interested in the geosciences. In this book, modern geological, geophysical, and geographical evidence is used to recreate the entire 4,000 million years of our Earths geological history. This evidence is then used to challenge the misconception that plate tecton

• Language: English
• Publisher: Terrella Press
• Release date: Mar 6, 2015
• ISBN: 9780992565244

James Maxlow

James Maxlow was born in Middlesbrough, England, in May 1949. His passion for geology was inherited from a family history of "ironstone workers" who supplied iron ore extracted from the Eston Ironstone Mine to the foundries and rolling mills of Middlesbrough, during the early 1800s to mid-1900s. He immigrated to Australia with his parents in 1953 where he grew up in Melbourne. He studied Civil Engineering at the then Swinburne College, but soon became disillusioned with engineering and redirected to geology at the then Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, graduating in 1971. During his academic years James met and communicated with many like-minded scientists from all the world. James received his Master of Science in Geology in 1995, followed by a Doctorate of Philosophy in 2001 at the Curtin University of Technology in Perth, Western Australia, including a letter of recommendation from the University Chancellor for original thought provoking research into tectonics.

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Terra non Firma Earth:

Plate Tectonics is a Myth

In this book, modern geological, geophysical, and geographical evidence is used to recreate the entire 4,000 million years of our Earths geological history. This evidence is then used to challenge the misconception that plate tectonics is the key to understanding our Earth sciences. In contrast to a random plate tectonic process, the formation and break-up of each of the continents, as well as a sympathetic opening of all the oceans is instead shown to be simple, progressive and evolutionary. All ancient magnetic poles are precisely located on Expansion Tectonic small Earth reconstructions of the ancient Earth, and all established poles and equators are shown to coincide with observed climate zones and biotic evidence. Similarly, faunal and floral species evolution is shown to be intimately related to this progressive continental break-up and oceanic crustal development. Global extinction events coincide with wholesale climate and sea-level changes, and the distribution of metallic ores and petroleum occurrences are readily comprehended.

Dr James Maxlow - 2015

ebookcoverbook1-final

Terrella Press

The moral rights of the author to publish this eBook have been asserted and all rights are reserved.

No part of this eBook may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, or photocopy without the prior permission in writing from the author Dr James Maxlow, at [e-mail] except for brief quotes and excerpts in connection with scholarly analysis and discussion.

Hard copy first published August 2005 by Terrella Press, Perth, Western Australia.

ISBN 0646449176

Copyright © 2005 James Maxlow

EBook first edition published in 2005 by OneOffPublishing

EBook second edition revised and reprinted in 2015 by Terrella Press, Perth, Western Australia

ISBN 978-0-9925652-4-4

Photography by Anita and James Maxlow.

Graphics by Anita Maxlow of Terrella Press.

Permission was granted by the Commission de la Carte Geologique du Monda, Paris to use and digitise the Geological Map of the World at 1:25,000,000 M scale (1990), published by the Commission for the Geological Map of the World and UNESCO © (1990).

Digitising of the Geological Map of the World (1990) © was originally carried out by Simon Brown of Geoviz International.

Dr James Maxlow

Email: [e-mail]

Copyright © 2015 Dr James Maxlow

36

Dedication

This book is dedicated to a lot of wonderful people, but most importantly to my adoring wife Anita and children Jason, Karena and Jarred, who have managed to remain calm, patient, supportive and loving - throughout a long and difficult research enquiry - that seemingly has no end.

Since commencing this book though, I am now compelled to also dedicate it to the memory of Professor Sam Warren Carey, the father of modern expansion theory, who sadly passed away during March 2002. During my early research I was given the honour of carrying his expanding Earth baton, and this book represents the culmination of my contribution to Professor Carey’s memory and most notable cause - with many thanks.

About the Author

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James Maxlow was born in Middlesbrough, England in May 1949, exactly 23 years after the birth of his good friend and fellow expansionist Klaus Vogel. James’ passion for geology was inherited from a family history of ironstone workers supplying iron ores mined from the Eston Ironstone Mine to the foundries and steel rolling mills of Middlesbrough during the 1800s to mid-1900s.

James immigrated to Australia with his parents in 1953, where he grew up in Melbourne. He studied Civil Engineering at the then Swinburne College, but soon became disillusioned with engineering and redirected himself to a degree in geology at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, graduating in 1971. It was in Melbourne where he later met and married his lovely wife Anita and during their work and travels throughout Australia they had three children, Jason, Karena, and Jarred.

James’ interest in the expanding Earth theory stems from working in the Pilbara region of Western Australia during the late 1970s where he first read the book The Expanding Earth written by Professor Samuel Warren Carey. The Pilbara region is a huge, Precambrian domal structure, several hundreds of kilometres across. It occurred to James that this relatively undisturbed domal structure may have been a fragment of a much smaller radius ancient Earth.

James gained his Master of Science in geology in 1995, followed by a Doctorate of Philosophy in 2002 at Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, including a letter of commendation from the university Chancellor for thought provoking research into Expansion Tectonics.

During his academic years James met and communicated with many wonderful expansionists from around the world. Most notable of which was the late Professor Samuel Warren Carey from Tasmania, the father of modern Earth Expansion, Jan Koziar from Poland who was the first scientist to measure and calculate the ancient Earth radius, and Klaus Vogel from Germany, the father of modern Expanding Earth modelling studies. It was during James’ academic studies that Professor Carey recognized the potential of his research into Expansion Tectonics. Carey then kindly passed on his Expanding Earth baton to James, an honour that James deeply cherishes to this day.

Table of Contents

Dedication

About the Author

Preface to First Edition

Preface to the Second Edition

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Why Is This So?

2.0 A Global Tectonic Dilemma

2.1 Expansion Tectonics

2.2 Plate Tectonics

2.3 Modern Global Tectonic Data

3.0 Expansion Tectonic Basics

3.1 Geological Crustal Budget

3.2 Primitive Earth Radius

3.3 Changing Earth Parameters

3.4 Mass, Density and Surface Gravity

3.4.1 Constant Earth Mass Scenario

3.4.2 Increasing Earth Mass Scenario

3.5 Why is Earth Radius Increasing?

3.6 Crustal Extension

4.0 Expansion Tectonic Small Earth Modelling

4.1 Assumptions

4.2 Construction Method

4.3 Triassic to Present-day Small Earth Models

4.4 Permian Pan-Global Small Earth Model

4.5 Archaean to Permian Small Earth Models

4.6 Primordial Archaean Small Earth Model

4.7 Crustal Development

5.0 The Modern Oceans and Seas

5.1 Arctic Ocean

5.2 Atlantic Ocean

5.2.1 North Atlantic Ocean

5.2.2 South Atlantic Ocean

5.3 Indian Ocean

5.4 Pacific Ocean

5.5 Caribbean Sea

5.6 Mediterranean Sea

5.7 South East Asian Seas

5.8 Southwest Pacific Ocean

5.9 Southern Ocean

6.0 The Modern Continents

6.1 Australia

6.2 Africa and Arabia

6.3 Antarctica

6.4 Europe and Asia

6.5 India

6.6 North America-Greenland-Scandinavia

6.7 South America

7.0 What of the Future?

8.0 Geophysical Objections

8.1 Palaeomagnetics

8.1.1 Ancient Earth Radius

8.1.2 Palaeomagnetic Dipole Formula

8.1.3 Palaeomagnetics and Expansion Tectonics

8.1.4 Present-day Palaeomagnetic Poles

8.1.5 Magnetic Poles on an Expansion Tectonic Earth

8.1.6 African Palaeoradius Determinations

8.2 Space Geodetics

8.2.1 Limiting Factors

8.2.2 Space Geodetic Network

8.2.3 Space Geodetic Modelling

8.2.4 Change in Earth Radius

8.2.5 Continental Plate Motion

9.0 Geographical Evidence

9.1 The Ancient Coastlines

9.2 Rise and Fall in Sea Levels

9.3 Continental Sedimentary Basins

9.4 The Ancient Continental Seas

9.5 The Ancient Supercontinents

9.5.1 Rodinia

9.5.2 Gondwana

9.5.3 Laurentia, Baltica, Laurussia

9.5.4 Pangaea

10.0 When the Earth Moves

10.1 Crustal Interaction

10.2 Mountain Building and Erosion

11.0 Life is an Adventure

11.1 Palaeozoic Marine Trilobites

11.2 When the Dinosaurs Roamed

11.3 The Ornate Ammonites

11.4 Primitive Seed Ferns

12.0 Changing Climates

12.1 Climate on an Expansion Tectonic Earth

12.2 Evidence from the Glacial Record

12.2.1 Early Proterozoic Glaciation

12.2.2 Late Proterozoic Glaciation

12.2.3 Glaciation on an Expansion Tectonic Earth

12.2.4 Early Palaeozoic Glaciation

12.2.5 Late Palaeozoic Glaciation

12.2.6 Late Cenozoic Glaciation

12.3 Late Palaeozoic Coal Era

12.4 Early to Late Cretaceous Coal Era

12.5 Distribution of Oil and Gas

12.6 Tropical Coral Reefs

13.0 Distribution of Metallic Ores

13.1 Metallogenic Epochs

13.2 Archaean Metallogenesis

13.3 Proterozoic Metallogenesis

13.4 Phanerozoic Metallogenesis

13.5 Metallic Ores on an Expansion Tectonic Earth

14.0 A Continental Example

14.1 Australian Crustal Development

14.2 Archaean Superprovinces

14.3 Archaean to Proterozoic Superprovince

14.4 Tasman Superprovince

15.0 Causal Mechanism

15.1 Origin of Our Earth-Moon System

15.2 A Primitive Earth Crust Forms

15.3 Primitive Atmosphere and Hydrosphere

15.4 Archaean Crust-Mantle Evolution

15.5 Proterozoic Crustal Evolution

15.6 Phanerozoic Crustal Evolution

15.7 Future Crustal Evolution

16.0 What Does Earth Have To Say?

17.0 References

Preface to First Edition

When studying the history of the creation and formulation of plate tectonics one can come to the conclusion that it is, and was at best, only a hypothesis. A hypothesis that uses an assumption as its basis. This is the assumption that the Earth has retained a constant size during its geological evolution. This assumption however is not supported by facts. When Carey (1958) and Heezen (1960) formulated the concept of lithospheric plates and the spreading of oceanic lithosphere, for instance, they pointed out that oceanic spreading is a manifestation of an expansion of the Earth. Plate tectonics, presented as a new global tectonics rejected this conclusion, based on the assumption of a constant size of the Earth. So plate tectonics is in fact the concept of a non-expanding Earth.

As a generation of geologists active in the sixties and seventies of last century still remember, discussion amongst different geotectonic ideas was very active. This generation was witness to the formulation of plate tectonics and was of course conscious of its basic assumptions. Subsequent generations have since lost this consciousness. Now the picture of the dynamics and paleodynamics of our planet, shaped during university studies and professional work, leaves no place for questions or doubts.

The dominating paradigm of plate tectonics and its ad hoc models now makes it easy to interpret more and more data and account for this data according to simple ideas. Undoubtedly this is one of the reasons for the acceptance of plate tectonics – the first, in the history of geology, a global theory trying to explain almost all geologic processes.

Simultaneously plate tectonics refers to the deeply rooted belief, held by many geologists, in the idea of geological actualism and so it satisfied them. It was much easier to accept a theory which assumed a constant Earth dimension during its geological evolution and a repeatability of contemporary processes, rather than look at it from the point of view of Earth expansion. Acceptance of Earth expansion would require acceptance of geological evolution, were the physical parameters of the Earth change and hence would influence such processes as sedimentation, tectonic deformation, metamorphism and magmatism.

These and other reasons have created a unique situation in the history of the Earth sciences. The big discussions between geotectonists have ceased. The competition of scientific programs has died. Plate tectonics has become a unification of the notional apparatus of geotectonics. The qualitative development has been replaced by quantitative incrementation of information. The competition of ideas – the basis of any progress in science - has now ceased.

Is this the fault of contemporary geoscience, especially amongst young geologists? The whole younger generation was formed in the spirit of plate tectonics, which was understood as an ultimate theory – the final and greatest achievement of the Earth sciences. The young are ready to discuss details, to agree with minor modification but they are not prepared to critically look at the core of the theory, at its basic assumption. In the words of Le Pichon (1968) - one of the founders of plate tectonics over 30 years ago "if the Earth is not expanding, there should be other boundaries of crustal blocks along which surface crust is shortened or destroyed", which is unknown to the majority of geologists.

Nobody appears to appreciate that these words contain an assumption, a hypothesis, not a proven fact, and that based on this assumption the whole gigantic edifice of plate tectonics is built. The present generation of geologists does not reach to the classics of plate tectonics. They are satisfied by the knowledge delivered by authority and the soothing consciousness of a full domination of professed paradigm. Considerable significance has also been placed on the contemporary view of a scientific career. Those scientists are respected who publish much and fast. And in the situation where the majority of important geological magazines are controlled by an editorial board, with reviewers actively professing the paradigm, it is not difficult to wonder why young geologists do not try to come to the core of the problem.

Does any real and substantial discussion between the two alternative tectonic theories really exist? After all discussion is a driving mechanism for progress in all science. Discussion is a duty of all sciencific workers. It should be done with respect to any opponents and serve as a means of looking for the scientific truth. However, is such discussion with the advocates of plate tectonics really possible? My own experience leads me to a pessimistic conclusion. There is now a lack of reference or any factual basis in plate tectonic discussions. The response of the plate tectonists to serious scientific arguments is disrespect and an unwillingness to give real answers to concrete questions. They are satisfied with emotive remarks treated as arguments, such as: "it is impossible, it is such a historical conception, it is a myth without significance, it is a long ago rejected theory", "expansionism is today a charlatanry, after all it is known to everybody that subduction exists. They are also satisfied with a faith in the might of knowledge of others: geologists distinguish many earlier (older than 200 million years – S.C.) cycles of growing and break-up of continents, palaeomagnetic and palaeobiographic reconstructions show that before 200 million years separated continents existed which changed their mutual position or we do not know a physical process which could explain the expansion of the Earth".

With this attitude in mind they are not prepared to discuss at all the hard facts described by geologists acting within the obligatory scientific paradigm. And the facts are striking. The real scientific discussion, in reality, must therefore concentrate on proof based on facts, proofs which in fact directly show an expansion of the Earth. Examples of these proofs are:

The enlargement of the perimeter of the Pacific Ocean, which is univocal with the progressive development of the ocean;

The deep rooting of continental plates, proven by seismic tomography;

The lengthwise stretching of the oceanic ridges;

The ongoing increase in distance between hot spots.

These examples are, of course, quite basic facts, the explanations of which we do not find in the plate tectonic model, or the explanations given are actually offensive by their artificiality. Similarly many other global and regional facts also exist to contradict the plate tectonic model, while instead they are easy to explain on an expanding Earth. These facts include: the existence of the so called triple junctions, the extensive development of the Arctic Ocean (the so called Arctic Paradox), a progressive development of the Tethys zone, the passive origin of rifts, the lack of a continuous asthenospheric layer under the lithosphere, and many others.

Instead of discussing these very important problems we are met with demonstrative statements, concentrating on details which have little to do with the basic questions, or more often by a silent avoidance of any discussion at all. The first response refers to those geologists who, through no fault of their own are not familiar with the alternative geotectonic theories. Their consciousness is instead formed by plate tectonics. These geologists generally treat each counter-argument as scientific heresy and react to it with indignation.

The silent avoidance refers to those less numerous, who are familiar with the scientific basis of the expanding Earth theory. Their attitude is more opportunistic. They prefer to be silent than to discuss. They prefer a convenient life with a fast scientific career rather than a controversial or challenging life; which the theory of Earth expansion gives. Of course, there are glorious exceptions – the people who work in the frame of plate tectonics but have a critical attitude and are ready to discuss the facts presented by expansionists.

Taking up the challenge of an expanding Earth theory requires the toil of digging through fundamental facts, a rejection of inherited opinion and formulating ones own opinion. But it is a profitable toil. Since, instead of a hypothesis which changed the Earth sciences into one of endless competition for the next microcontinent, displaced terrane, paleoocean, subduction zone, or collision or accretion configuration, in places were it is difficult to agree, we obtain a simple and elegant theory, based on observable facts readily obtained from the oceans and continents – the theory of an expanding Earth.

And contrary to the views of many advocates of plate tectonics the rule of Ockham’s razor decidedly speaks for the theory of Earth expansion. Emphasised in particular by facts from investigations of each of the oceans, which prove Earth expansion beyond any doubt. The development of the Pacific Ocean in itself is basic to demonstrating that the Earth is expanding.

These facts represent a basis for a new global tectonics, which will outpace other natural sciences and give important input to understanding the physics of elementary particles, astrophysics and cosmology. The insinuation that we still do not know a physical process responsible for an accelerated expansion of the Earth is not a scientific counterargument. The physical nature of many processes has regularly been recognized in science, long after they were first recognized as real phenomena. It is not a task of the geologist to explain problems beyond their discipline. Their task is to see and correctly explain all geological facts.

In this situation James Maxlow's book is a very important work of special interest to science. It can be placed between a small number of works devoted to modelling an Earth expansion process (e.g. Hilgenberg, 1933, Brosske, 1962, Barnett, 1962, Vogel, 1983). Modelling of this process lies in constructing spherical scale models of the Earth to enable us to analyse the process of Earth expansion. James Maxlow's reconstructions described in this book are the first, whereby a full set of data, based on the ages of the ocean floor and continental geology is used for reconstruction. Empirical modelling based on this oceanic and continental data gives an objective picture of this tremendous process involved. At the same time James Maxlow's reconstructions show a clear correlation between paleogeographical, paleomagnetic, paleoclimatic and metallogenic data. His argumentation is clear and valid, and his thinking is logical and convincing.

James Maxlow's reconstructions for the post-Triassic evolution of Earth are based on a lithospheric budget, which was determined by computing the cumulative surface area of the known ages of the ocean floors. Data used in this stage of his work is unquestionable, and has previously been used by a number of researchers. The exponential growth in Earth radius during the past 200 million years of its history, calculated from this surface area data, confirms the very important calculations and reconstructions of Jan Koziar – 1980, (Poland) and Klaus Vogel – 1980 (Germany).

Step by step the author has restored and reconstructed the spatial distribution of the continents and oceans, moving back in time from the present day. Reconstruction of the ancient Pangea supercontinent, which was achieved by removing all of the modern oceans, demonstrates a very high degree of fitting together of each of the remaining continents. During the Triassic Period, when all modern oceanic crust is removed, the remaining continental crust, together with the continental shelves, then evelopes the Earth. This fitting is confirmed by the spatial integrity of geostructures from each continent, such as orogens, sedimentary basins, metallogenic belts, magmatic activity and so on. This continental configuration is then shown to remain spatially integrated throughout Earth history. Displacement of the continents in relation to the ancient paleopoles and paleoequator, during opening of the modern oceans, is also very logical. The resultant climatic zonation on an Earth of reduced size is then characterized by narrow zones, because of the shorter distance between polar and equatorial regions. Every step in these reconstructions can be supported by existing, easy to verify, data.

Pre-Jurassic model reconstruction is a logical continuation of James Maxlow's way of thinking, but more difficult to verify. It is based on the same geological map of the world as that used to close off the modern oceans. Construction, which is the first of its kind in the history of geology, involves a progressive removal of young basin sediments and magmatic complexes and the restoration of each area to a pre-existing configuration. Pre-Jurassic models are reconstructed backward in time until each of the Archean cratons and Proterozoic basement rocks are assembled. The final result is a spherical model of the Archean Earth of approximately 1700 km diameter. This method used for pre-Jurassic reconstructions is logical but is based on different assumptions and is controversial. The estimation of the magnitude of continental crustal extension during the early phases of Earth expansion is very difficult because the crust has extended during the entire Earth history. In the basement of orogens, for instance, numerous fragments of reworked Precambrian crust or fragments of an older orogens are observed. Crystalline Precambrian basement extension, crustal thinning and rifting is a fact, but a quantitative estimation and separation of the post-Triassic stage of the expansion process is difficult and uncertain.

James Maxlow`s conclusions concerning the Precambrian and Paleozoic evolution of an expanding Earth are valid and important and are demonstrated by many facts. One of these conclusions is that Precambrian orogens form an intracratonic network corresponding to very old zones of crustal weakness. This network then forms the locus for ongoing processes of orogeny and magmatism. This statement explains in a very simple way why orogenic processes are so permanent along the same belts and appear repeatedly in the same areas.

Of special significance is the general conclusion which can be drawn from his reconstructions: all geological evolution of the expanding Earth is a one-way process. Many physical parameters are changing with time. The changes of such processes as orogeny, sedimentation, rates of erosion, intensity of crustal extension, rifting, and hipsometric changes to sea-level are therefore different during each period of Earth evolution. What this means is that the accepted principle of uniformitarism can only be used in a very limited way.

Extensional development of the oceans represents crucial evidence for demonstrating Earth expansion. Plate-tectonic reconstructions require the Pacific and Arctic Oceans, as well as the Mediterranean Sea to contract in area during the sympathetic opening of each of the other oceans. On these Plate-tectonic reconstructions subduction then had to destroy all of the theoretical pre-Mesozoic oceanic crust, together with an enormous quantity of younger oceanic crust. There is still no evidence for so powerful a process. If one only draws a conclusion from the facts shown by the young ages of all modern oceans, plus their extensional development – an expansion of the Earth is the only solution. Oceanic development on an expanding Earth lets us ignore and abandon the problem of a theoretical subduction of pre-existing crust. The process of ocean creation is then unique in Earth history. The simultaneous and progressive development of all oceans during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic times simply indicates an expansion of the Earth. James Maxlow's models give a full and logical picture of this gradual development of each of the oceans, which is the main expression of expansion.

A very important conclusion of James Maxlow concerns the early phase of ocean opening, after the pre-Jurassic continents ruptured – a phase of continous extension of marginal basins and shelf areas. Break-up of the pre-Jurassic Pangea supercontinent starts from an extension of the shelves, through to continental rifting, and asymetric to symetric spreading of the ocean floor during the Cenozoic time. This growth of the oceans and basins represents a prime cause of the rotation of continents, as confirmed by paleomagnetic data in relation to each other and to the axis of Earth rotation. Paleomagnetically proved changes to the paleolatitude of continents, used by plate tectonics for paleogeographic reconstructions, is then much better understood on an expanding Earth, and very long distances of displacement between continents on an Earth of a smaller size is not necessery for any interpretation.

There is another very important phenomena concerning the Earth expansion process, which is not fully understood by most plate-tectonic advocates. This is the phenomena of a decreasing curvature of the Earth surface during expansion. This change in surface curvature is responsible for many tectonic process, such as intraplate deformation, problems of misfiting between continents, translational interaction between continental and oceanic plates, and so on. In my opinion this is a crucial geological process that should be fully recognized.

Modelling of geophysical data on an expanding Earth is another important part of James Maxlow's work. It is widely known that paleomagnetics is considered the backbone of plate tectonics. Most plate tectonic reconstructions are based on this palaeomagnetic data, which is inferred to indicate the existance of wide pre-oceans located between the ancient supercontinents. James Maxlow's analysis of existing palaeomagnetic data gives a very clear and convincing picture of the mistakes that plate-tectonic interpretation is based on. This misunderstanding of plate tectonics of course is based on a constant paleoradius of the Earth assumption. Complex motions of continents are not required when the same paleomagnetic data is interpreted on an expanding Earth.

Space geodetic results seem to be, as yet, inconclusive. The most important reason being that, for plate tectonic models to work using space geodetic data the horizontal plate motion vectors do not include a vertical vector component. If this component is included the current plate motions, recorded by space geodetic measurements, simply indicate Earth expansion.

All of James Maxlow's arguments – palaeomagnetic, paleogeographic, paleobiogeographical, paleoclimatic and metallogenic are important arguments and should be seriously considered by all scientists from the geological community. The general picture of the evolution of the Earth given in this book is logical and conclusive and outlines the enormous processes involved in Earth expansion. The causual understanding of Earth expansion is not yet fully understood, but the empirical processes involved are confirmed by such numerous and different sets of data that this should be considered a fact. Probably it will not be possible to fully accept an expanding Earth for some time yet, but advocates of Earth expansion are not to blame. I am personally sure that James Maxlow's research belongs to one of the most crucial works in the history of the Earth expansion theory, which is still alive.

Dr Stefan Cwojdzinski

Polish Geological Institute

Lower Silesian Branch

Wrocław, Poland

Preface to the Second Edition

Since the hardcopy verison of this eBook was first published in 2005 there have been significant advances made in space technologies towards understanding both the physical dimensions of the Earth and the causal mechanism for Earth expansion. In this edition, the opportunity is taken to revise relevant sections in this eBook to better reflect these new observations and to reinforce and elaborate on the primary Expansion Tectonic theory.

This eBook publication is now largely superceded by an extensive new book entitled On the Origin of Continents and Oceans: A Paradgm Shift in Understanding and two accompanying eBook versions entitled On the Origin of Continents and Oceans: Book 1: Empirical Small Earth Modelling Studies and On the Origin of Continents and Oceans: Book 2: The Earths Rock Record, published in 2014. This eBook: Terra non Firma: Plate tectonics is a Myth is here revised and retained as an introduction to Expansion Tectonics.

1.0 Introduction

If 50 million believe in a fallacy, it is still a fallacy. Professor S. W. Carey (pers com 1996).

For most of human history it was considered that our planet Earth remained as a stationary object, located at the centre of the known Universe. Everything was then assumed to revolve around the Earth, and mankind was renowned as being the pinnacle of divine creative intent. This consensus of belief remained relatively unchallenged in science and society until AD1543, when Nicolaus Copernicus, a famous Polish astronomer, showed that this belief was wrong. From his observations he demonstrated that, rather than everything revolving around the Earth, we in fact revolve around the Sun. While obvious to us now, this simple observation has subsequently paved the way for modern astronomy and revitalised speculation on the formation of the entire Universe.

Now, if I look into the starry night sky, I can easily imagine sweeping the entire content of the heavens into my hands to form a singularity, the postulated Big Bangs’ point of creation of the Universe. Yet, when I look down at my feet, I cannot see how it is possible to reduce the size of our supposed terra firma Earth to conform to this readily accepted theory.

While this last statement is of course ludicrous, it is meant to emphasise how readily we accept modern science, and a belief in the postulated Big Bang creation event, as well as any subsequent expansion of the Universe. With this seemingly well-founded knowledge it is unfortunate that we do not concern ourselves as to where the present mass of the Universe came from, or how this could possibly relate to the evolution of our planet Earth.

As our predecessors mistakenly did before us, the starry night sky scenario is simply our misunderstanding of galactic scale. From our perspective the stars in the night sky look minutely small by comparison to our Earth under foot. Without an intimate appreciation of the vastness of the Universe, and everything within it, it is then very easy to disregard the scale factor and, like our ancestors did,