Primary Theories of Crime and Victimization: Second Edition

By James R. Jones

This text focuses on the history of criminology, which includes the criminological time periods, persons most associated with each era, and their contentions and contributions. The earlier crime research epochs that are the concentration of the beginning of the text are the classical school of criminology, positivist criminology, sociological criminology (also known as the Chicago school), conflict criminology, and developmental criminology. It also concentrates on the ways crime is recorded in the United States and the strengths and weaknesses of each method. The focal point of the crime recording section of the text is on the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), and self-report surveys. The theories of crime and delinquency that are examined are strain theory, differential association theory, conflict theory, social bonding theory, rational choice theory, social structure theory, social disorganization theory, cultural deviance theory, differential association theory, differential reinforcement theory, labeling theory, and theories of victimization. Finally, the text concludes with chapters on causes of violent crimes, juvenile delinquency, white-collar crime, and terrorism.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Sep 7, 2017
• ISBN: 9781543444902

James R. Jones

About the Author Dr. James R. Jones was born in Newark, New Jersey, and raised in Irvington, New Jersey. He has a bachelor’s degree in criminal justice, a master of science degree in criminology and criminal justice, and a PhD in criminal justice. He has worked extensively in the criminal justice field as a police officer, juvenile corrections officer, juvenile probation officer, director of a juvenile jail, and currently as a college professor. He is married with a son and, during his spare time, enjoys traveling and attending sporting events.

Book preview

PRIMARY

THEORIES OF

CRIME AND

VICTIMIZATION

SECOND EDITION

JAMES R. JONES, Ph.D.

Copyright © 2017 by JAMES R. JONES, Ph.D.

Library of Congress Control Number:         2017912738

         ISBN:                  Hardcover                  978-1-5434-4488-9

                                      Softcover                    978-1-5434-4489-6

                                      eBook                         978-1-5434-4490-2

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Any people depicted in stock imagery provided by Thinkstock are models, and such images are being used for illustrative purposes only.

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Rev. date: 09/07/2017

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1   Introduction

Chapter 2   Uniform Crime Report, National Crime Victimization Survey, and Self-Report Surveys

Chapter 3   The Beginning: The Study of Crime

Chapter 4   Delinquent Youth

Chapter 5   Social Structure Theories

Chapter 6   Social Learning Theories

Chapter 7   Labeling Theory

Chapter 8   Social Bonding Theory

Chapter 9   White-Collar Crime

Chapter 10   Terrorism Today

Chapter 11   Gangs in America

Chapter 12   Public Order Crimes

Chapter 13   Violent Crime in America

Chapter 14   The Police, the Community, and Addressing Crime

Chapter 15   Explaining Victimization

Chapter 16   The Future of Crime

Chapter 1

Introduction

What is Crime

In legal terms, a crime is any act that is subjected to prosecution and punishable by law. In the United States, criminal offenses are broken down into three categories. The categories are felonies, misdemeanors, and municipal ordinances. A felony is typically a more serious crime such as an act of violence (homicide or rape) and is punishable by a prison sentence of more than a year and up to life or the death penalty. A misdemeanor is a less serious offense such as a theft (value under $500) and is punishable by less than a year in jail. A municipal ordinance is also a misdemeanor, but it is a law that is specific to a municipality / local government and is generally punishable by a fine. An example of a municipal ordinance would be a public intoxication. While it may be illegal to be intoxicated in public in one city, it may not be illegal in another.

In addition to felonies, misdemeanors, and municipal ordinances, felonies can be prosecuted by state government or federal government. This is called jurisdiction. Jurisdiction is the authority of a government to make legal decisions in criminal matters as well as to punish an offender for his or her behaviors when found guilty. State crimes are criminal acts that violate state statutes. Statutes vary from state to state. Most crime committed in the United States is prosecuted under state law. A federal offense, on the other hand, occurs when one of the three classes of federal crime is violated. The three classes are (1) crimes that impact travel or communication on an interstate or international level, (2) offenses that occur outside of the jurisdiction of any state, and (3) crimes that impede the operation of the federal government.

Examples of Three Federal Crime Violations

(1) Crimes that Impact Travel or Communication on an Interstate or International Level

a. Travel Act – crossing state lines during the commission of a crime or the use of US mail, telephone, Internet, etc., to commit a crime

b. Wire Fraud Act – illegal transfer of monetary resources (usually across state lines)

c. National Stolen Property Act – transporting stolen property across state lines

d. Fugitive Felon Act – crossing state lines with the intention of eluding law enforcement and the courts from criminal prosecution

e. Mann Act – engaging in prostitution across state lines

f. Hobbs Act – engaging in the act of extortion

g. Lindbergh Act – kidnapping and fleeing with the victim across state lines

(2) Offenses that Occur Outside of the Jurisdiction of Any State

a. Offenses that occur in the District of Columbia

b. Offenses by the military in foreign lands

c. Offenses on aircrafts and ships controlled by the American government

(3) Crimes that Impede the Operation of the Federal Government

a. Fraud using the US mail system

b. Robbery of any federally insured banks

c. Federal income tax violations

d. Attempt to seriously disrupt the operations of or overthrow the government

Criminal behavior is present in almost every profession and aspect of life. In an attempt to understand why crime occurs, criminologists examine factors that contribute to antisocial behaviors. Criminologists who have degrees in criminal justice and sociology are often responsible for studying conventional crimes such as murder, rape, narcotics sells, theft, and assault. They examine variables of age, race, gender, education level, and socioeconomic class in relation to the occurrence of conventional crimes. Criminologists with degrees in economics study crimes such as tax evasion, money laundering, white-collar crimes, and other forms of finance-related criminal infractions. Those that hold degrees in the natural sciences research criminal acts related to the environment. Despite the discipline, criminologists have degrees in a variety of areas that qualify them to study and explain why crimes occur and ways to attempt to control the behaviors.

This text will focus on the history of criminology which includes the criminological periods, persons most associated with each era, and their contentions and contributions. The earlier crime research epochs that will be the concentration of the beginning of the text are the classical school of criminology, positivist criminology, sociological criminology (also known as the Chicago school), conflict criminology, and developmental criminology. It will also concentrate on the ways crime is recorded in the United States and the strengths and weaknesses of each method. The focal point of the crime recording section of the text will be on the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), and self-report surveys. The theories of crime and delinquency that will be examined are strain theory, differential association theory, conflict theory, social bonding theory, rational choice theory, social structure theory, social disorganization theory, cultural deviance theory, differential association theory, differential reinforcement theory, labeling theory, and theories of victimization. Finally, the text will conclude with chapters on causes of violent crimes, juvenile delinquency, white-collar crimes, and terrorism.

Chapter 2

Uniform Crime Report, National Crime Victimization Survey, and Self-Report Surveys

While there are two different court systems for juvenile and adult offenders, the criminal activities of both groups are recorded the same. Although juvenile and adult crime in some cases may be committed for different reasons, it is still important for criminal justice practitioners to understand how often these offenses occur. Grasping an understanding of the frequency of crime occurrence allows for a more strategic focus on how to address factors that significantly contribute to the reasons juveniles and adults engage in antisocial behaviors.

In order to understand crime trends and patterns, it is important to know how often crimes occur. However, recording crime is more complicated than it appears. In order to accurately document crime, one must first be able to identify what crime is and the different categories of crimes. It is also important to be able to differentiate the difference between deviant behavior and a criminal act. While the majority of criminal acts can be considered deviant behaviors, not all deviant acts are criminal infractions. An example of the aforementioned would be a physical assault versus a hand gesture that goes against prosocial norms of society. If one person punched another person, it is an assault (which is against the law) and also considered a deviant and antisocial behavior. However, if someone displayed their middle finger in anger at another person, it is an antisocial behavior, but not against the law.

A crime is any act that violates the rules of a land and, as a result, can be prosecuted and punished by a governing body. There are two types of crime. They are felonies and misdemeanors. A felony is a serious crime that is punishable by more than a year in prison and up to death. A misdemeanor is a minor crime usually punishable by probation or up to one year in jail. There are many misconceptions of felonies and misdemeanors. One of the most common misconceptions is that all felonies are violent offenses and all misdemeanors are nonviolent infractions. The aforementioned is incorrect. There are nonviolent felonies, such as narcotics sells, as well as violent misdemeanors, such as a simple assault or second-degree assault without an injury (slap in face or punch in arm).

Recording Crime: UCR, NCVS, and Self-Report Surveys

In the United States, there are three ways crime and delinquency statistics are recorded. The three ways are the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), and self-report surveys. However, it is important to understand, despite the recording of crime data, the actual rate at which crime occurs, as well as the specific number of criminal acts that happen each year, is still unknown.

Uniform Crime Report

The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) is the primary way crime and delinquency data is recorded in the United States. It started in 1930 and since has become a resource of data for researchers, lawmakers, and law enforcement. Nearly eighteen thousand local, state, federal, and college/university law enforcement agencies voluntarily report criminal infractions they become aware of through calls for service and self-initiated actions. Each law enforcement agency provides their arrest statistics to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) quarterly. The FBI then compiles the data and publishes it annually.

The Uniform Crime Report is categorized into two parts. The two parts are part I crimes and part II crimes. Part I crimes consist of homicide, nonnegligent manslaughter, arson, burglary, larceny, robbery, aggravated assault, forcible rape, and motor vehicle theft. Part II crimes consist of all other crimes that are not included as part I crimes.

Like many things, the Uniform Crime Report has strengths and weaknesses. The strength of the UCR is, it provides a record of national crime trends. The weakness of the UCR is, it is only as accurate as the crimes reported. Every year, there are many crimes that are not reported to law enforcement. As a result, the crimes that occur and not reported to police are not included in the Uniform Crime Report. Due to the aforementioned, the UCR is not accurate. Crimes such as narcotics sells, narcotics use, and domestic violence are often not reported to police and not tallied on the UCR.

Methods Used to Calculate Crime Data for the UCR

Source: Siegel, L. (2015), Criminology: The Core, fifth edition

National Crime Victimization Survey

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is the primary way for which data on criminal victimization is compiled in the United States. The aforementioned is conducted by obtaining information from approximately forty thousand households making up about seventy-five thousand people. The information collected includes rate of occurrence, attributes, and outcomes of criminal victimizations. The survey is conducted one time per year. The primary purpose of the NCVS is to capture what was not captured in the UCR.

Like the Uniform Crime Report, the National Crime Victimization Survey also has strengths and weaknesses. The strength of the NCVS is that it captures crimes not included in the UCR because they were not reported to the police. The weaknesses are that it does not include narcotics abuse and it relies on the victim’s memory and honesty. As a result of the NCVS only being administered one time per year, victims have a great probability of not remembering every detail of the victimization. The aforementioned may result in parts of the victimization being omitted or replaced with accounts that may not be accurate. Also, because the NCVS relies on honesty and victims may be ashamed or embarrassed by certain types or attributes of the victimization, some victims may be dishonest about what occurred during the incident.

Self-Report Surveys

Self-report surveys are surveys that require the offender to disclose offenses for which they were involved. As with the NCVS, self-report surveys capture offenses that were not reported to police and not recorded on the Uniform Crime Report. The strengths of a self-report survey are that it includes narcotics use and crimes not documented on the UCR and it includes the offender’s personal information such as name and address. The weaknesses of the survey are that (1) people often do not complete them due to personal information being included, (2) most people are not willing to provide incriminating information after they have already gotten away with the criminal act, (3) it is not sent to those who are incarcerated, and (4) it relays on honesty and memory.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Understanding the challenges of the Uniform Crime Report, what are some ways to ensure its accuracy?

2. Do you believe self-report surveys should still be used as a method of collecting crime and delinquency data? Why or why not?

3. Do you believe the National Crime Victimization Survey is accurate? Why or why not?

4. If you were to give the responsibility to create a new method of recording crime, what would be the new method, and how would you ensure its accuracy?

Chapter Summary