Primary Theories of Crime and Victimization: Third Edition

By James R. Jones Ph.D.

This text focuses on the history of criminology, including the major criminological epochs, the most prominent practitioners associated with each, and their contentions and contributions to the discipline. The earliest epochs, which comprise some of the initial concentrations of the text, include the Classical School of Criminology, Positivist Criminology, Sociological Criminology (also known by some as the Chicago School), Conflict Criminology, and Developmental Criminology. The manuscript will also concentrate on the ways by which crime is recorded in the United States and the strengths and weaknesses of each method. The focal point of this crime recording section of the text are on the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), and Self Report Surveys. The theories of crime and delinquency that are examined are strain theory, differential association theory, conflict theory, social bonding theory, rational choice theory, social structure theory, social disorganization theory, cultural deviance theory differential association theory, differential reinforcement theory, and labeling theory. In addition, other areas of crime that are explored are gangs and crime, victimless crimes, causes of violent crime, serial killers, mass murderers, and spree killers, sexual assault, mental health and crime, rural criminology, and queer criminology. Finally, the text concludes with chapters on community/police relations and crime, theories of victimization, crime and punishment, using criminological theories to explore crime, and crime in the 21st century.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Apr 8, 2020
• ISBN: 9781796096262

James R. Jones Ph.D.

Dr. James R. Jones was born in Newark, New Jersey, and raised in Irvington, New Jersey. He has a bachelor's degree in criminal justice, a master's of science degree in criminology and criminal justice, and a PhD in criminal justice. He has worked extensively in the criminal justice field as a police officer, juvenile corrections officer, juvenile probation officer, director of a juvenile jail, and currently as a college professor. He is married with a son, and during his spare time, enjoys traveling and attending sporting events.

Book preview

COPYRIGHT © 2020 BY JAMES R. JONES, PH.D.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CONTROL NUMBER:      2020906171

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Any people depicted in stock imagery provided by Getty Images are models, and such images are being used for illustrative purposes only.

Certain stock imagery © Getty Images.

Edited By

Thomas S. Mosley, Ph.D.

Rev. date: 05/15/2020

Xlibris

1-888-795-4274

www.Xlibris.com

811645

CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Crime Reporting and Recording in the United States

Chapter 3 Criminological Time Periods

Chapter 4 Juvenile Crime

Chapter 5 Social Structure Theories

Chapter 6 Social Learning Theories

Chapter 7 Labeling Theory

Chapter 8 Social Bonding Theory

Chapter 9 White-Collar Crime

Chapter 10 Terrorism

Chapter 11 Gangs and Crime in the U.S.

Chapter 12 Victimless Crimes

Chapter 13 Causes of Violent Crime

Chapter 14 Serial Killers, Mass Murderers, & Spree Killers

Chapter 15 Sexual Assault

Chapter 16 Mental Health and Crime

Chapter 17 Rural Criminology

Chapter 18 Queer Criminology

Chapter 19 Community/Police Relations and Crime

Chapter 20 Theories of Victimization

Chapter 21 Crime and Punishment

Chapter 22 Bringing it All Together: Using Criminological Theories to Explain Crime

Chapter 23 Crime in the 21st Century

Chapter 1

Introduction

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Discuss what is a crime.

• Discuss the difference between a felony, misdemeanor, and municipal ordinance.

• Discuss examples of three federal crime violations.

What is Crime?

In legal terms, a crime is any behavior that is subject to prosecution and punishable by law. In the United States, criminal offenses are divided into three distinct categories: felonies, misdemeanors, and municipal ordinances. Felonies typically constitute the more serious crimes, such as acts of violence (homicide, rape, etc.), and are generally punishable by prison sentences of a year or more, up to life, or the death penalty. Misdemeanors are the less serious offenses; they usually include crimes such as petty theft (theft of property that is valued under $400-$500), and are normally punishable by less than a year in jail. Municipal ordinances are also misdemeanors; however, they are structured, specifically, in accordance with municipalities and local governments. They rarely carry punishments beyond fines. Examples include public intoxication, trespassing, and panhandling. Municipal ordinances vary from city to city.

Felonies can be prosecuted by both state and federal governments. This is called jurisdiction, or the authority of a government to make legal decisions in criminal matters as well as to punish an offender for his or her behaviors when found guilty. State crimes are criminal acts that violate state statutes. Statutes vary from state to state. Most crimes committed in the United States are prosecuted under state law. A federal offense, on the other hand, occurs when at least one of the crimes included in the three classes of federal crimes is violated. The three classes of federal crime are (1) crimes that impact travel or communication on an interstate or international level; (2) crimes that occur outside of the jurisdiction of any state; and (3) crimes that impede the operation of the federal government.

Examples of Three Federal Crime Violations:

(1) Crimes that impact travel or communication on an interstate or international level:

a. Travel Act- Crossing state lines during the commission of a crime, or the use of U.S. mail, telephone, internet, etc. to commit a crime.

b. Wire Fraud Act- Illegal transfer of monetary resources (usually across state lines).

c. National Stolen Property Act- Transporting stolen property across state lines.

d. Fugitive Felon Act- Crossing state lines with the intention of eluding criminal prosecution by law enforcement and the courts.

e. Mann Act- Engaging in prostitution across state lines.

f. Hobbs Act- Engaging in the act of extortion.

g. Lindbergh Act- Kidnapping and fleeing with the victim across state lines.

(2) Offenses that occur outside of the jurisdiction of any state:

a. Offenses that occur in the District of Columbia

b. Offenses carried out by military personnel in foreign lands or

c. Offenses involving aircrafts and ships controlled by the American government

(3) Crimes that impede the operation of the federal government:

a. Fraudulent use of the U.S. postal system

b. Robbery of any federally insured banks

c. Federal income tax violations

d. Attempts to overthrow or disrupt the operations of the U.S. Government

Criminal behavior permeates every profession and is present in virtually every aspect of human life. In an attempt to understand the existence of crime, criminologists examine factors that contribute to antisocial behaviors. Many social scientists with degrees in criminal justice and sociology are responsible for studying felony crimes like murder, rape, narcotics sells, and assault. They often examine demographic variables (age, race, sex, education level, socioeconomic class, etc.) and how they are correlated with such offenses. Other scholars focus on crime and economics and examine transgressions such as tax evasion, money laundering, white-collar crimes, and other forms of finance-related criminal infractions. Those that hold degrees in the natural sciences research criminal acts related to the environment. Criminologists have degrees in a variety of areas that qualify them to study and explain why crimes occur and ways to control criminal behaviors.

This text will focus on the history of criminology, including the major criminological epochs, the most prominent practitioners associated with each, and their contentions and contributions to the discipline. The earliest epochs, which comprise some of the initial concentrations of the text, include the Classical School of Criminology, Positivist Criminology, Sociological Criminology (also known by some as the Chicago School), Conflict Criminology, and Developmental Criminology. The manuscript will also concentrate on the ways by which crime is recorded in the United States and the strengths and weaknesses of each method. The focal point of this crime recording section of the text will be on the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), and Self Report Surveys. The theories of crime and delinquency that will be examined are strain theory, differential association theory, conflict theory, social bonding theory, rational choice theory, social structure theory, social disorganization theory, cultural deviance theory, differential association theory, differential reinforcement theory, and labeling theory. In addition, other areas of crime that will be explored are gangs and crime, victimless crimes, causes of violent crime, serial killers, mass murderers, spree killers, sexual assault, mental health and crime, rural criminology, and queer criminology. Finally, the text will conclude with chapters on community/police relations and crime, theories of victimization, crime and punishment, using criminological theories to explain crime, and crime in the 21st century.

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. What is the difference between a state crime and a federal crime?

2. What is the difference between a municipal ordinance and a state crime categorized as a misdemeanor?

3. Criminologists study crime. Why is it important to have people with degrees and areas of expertise outside of criminology assist with the study of crime?

4. Why do criminologists study crime trends and patterns? How can the study of crime help decrease victimization?

Chapter Summary

• A crime is any behavior that is subject to prosecution and punishable by law. In the United States, criminal offenses are divided into three distinct categories: felonies, misdemeanors, and municipal ordinances.

• Criminologists study crime.

• Criminologists have degrees in a variety of areas that qualify them to study and explain why crimes occur and ways to control criminal behaviors.

Chapter 2

Crime Reporting and Recording

in the United States

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Discuss the ways crime and delinquency statistics are recorded in the United States.

• Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each of the ways crime and delinquency statistics are recorded in the United States.

While there are different court systems for juvenile and adult offenders, the criminal activities of both groups are recorded in the same manner. Although juvenile and adult crimes, in some cases, may be committed for different reasons, it is still important for criminal justice practitioners to understand how often these offenses occur. Grasping an understanding of the frequency of crime occurrence allows for a more strategic focus on how to address factors that significantly contribute to the reasons juveniles and adults engage in antisocial behaviors.

In order to better understand crime trends and patterns, it is important to know how often crimes occur. However, recording crime may be more complicated than it appears. In order to accurately document crime, one must first be able to identify what is crime as well as know the different categories of crimes. It is also important to differentiate deviant behavior from criminal acts. While numerous criminal acts may also be considered deviant behaviors, many deviant acts fall short of being criminal infractions; even sometimes when the actions are remarkably similar. For example, usually when one person, out of rage or anger, repeatedly punches another, it is considered a criminal act; however, when those same actions take place in a sanctioned boxing match, most people would not describe those actions as criminal, despite how deviant they may seem.

A crime is any act that violates the rules of a land, and which, in turn, can be prosecuted and punished by a governing body. There are two basic types of crimes: felonies, which are the more serious types and carry the more severe punishments, and misdemeanors, the less serious offenses that are punished less harshly. There are many misconceptions surrounding felonies and misdemeanors. One of the more common fallacies is that all felonies are violent offenses and all misdemeanors are nonviolent infractions. In fact, there are nonviolent felonies like the many instances of heavy narcotic sells in which violence plays no role, as well as violent misdemeanors, such as those that include simple or second degree assaults that do not result in serious injury.

Recording Crime: UCR, NCVS, and Self Report Surveys

In the United States, there are three primary mechanisms through which crime and delinquency statistics are recorded: the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), and Self Report Surveys. However, it is important to understand that, despite the high standards of crime reporting that have been bestowed upon these three apparatuses, the actual rate at which crime occurs, as well as the specific number of criminal acts that take place in the United States are largely unknown. That is because it is a widely accepted conclusion that total law enforcement is virtually impossible.

Uniform Crime Report

The Uniform Crime Report (UCR) is the primary way crime and delinquency data is recorded in the United States. It started in 1930 and has since become a resource of data for researchers, lawmakers, and law enforcement personnel. Today in America, nearly 18,000 local, state, federal, and college/university law enforcement agencies voluntarily report criminal infractions that they become aware of through calls for service and self-initiated actions. Each of those agencies provide quarterly arrests statistics to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The FBI then complies the data and publishes it annually in a report called Crime in the United States, more commonly known as the Uniform Crime Report.

The UCR is categorized into two parts: Part I crimes and Part II crimes. Part I crimes consist of four (4) violent (or personal) crimes: murder and non-negligent manslaughter, robbery, aggravated assault, and forcible rape; and four (4) property crimes: arson, burglary, larceny theft, and motor vehicle theft. Part II crimes consist of all other crimes that are not included as Part I crimes.

Like many things, the UCR has strengths and weaknesses. Among its primary strengths is its provision of a record of national crime trends. Major weaknesses of the report include its limitation to only the crime data provided by the aforementioned law enforcement agencies and its reliance upon the accuracy of that information. Every year there are many crimes that are not reported to law enforcement. As a result, those offenses are not included in the Uniform Crime Report and are major contributors to the degree to which the UCR is inaccurate. Many crimes, such as narcotics sells and use and domestic violence incidents, routinely go undetected in the United States and thus are not tallied in the UCR.

Methods Used to Calculate Crime Data for the UCR:

The UCR uses three methods to express crime data. First, the number of crimes reported to the police and arrests made are expressed as raw figures (For example, in 2011, 14,612 murders occurred). Second, crime rates per 100,000 people are computed. That is, when the UCR indicated that the murder rate was about 4.7 in 2011, it meant that fewer than 5 people in every 100,000 were murdered between January 1, 2011 and December 31, 2011. This equation is used:

53361.png

Third, the FBI computes changes in the number and rate of each crime over time. Murders declined about 15 percent between 2007 and 2011; the number of rapes declined 12 percent between 2002 and 2011.

Source: Siegel, L (2015) Criminology: The Core 5th Edition

National Crime Victimization Survey

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is the primary way in which data on criminal victimization is compiled in the United States. The aforementioned is conducted by obtaining information from approximately 40,000 households annually, making up about 75,000 people. The information collected includes rate of occurrence, attributes, and outcomes of criminal victimizations. The survey is conducted two times per year. The primary purpose of the NCVS is to capture what was not captured in the UCR.

Like the Uniform Crime Report, the NCVS has strengths and weaknesses, also. One important strength of the NCVS is that it captures crimes not included in the UCR, because they were not reported to the police. The weaknesses include its absence of data on narcotics abuse and its subsequent heavy reliance on victims’ accounts. Because the survey is administered only twice per year, victims sometime have tendencies to inaccurately remember important details of their victimizations. This sometimes results in salient information being omitted or replaced with accounts that may be inaccurate. Also, because the NCVS relies on honesty, and victims may be ashamed or embarrassed by certain aspects of their victimizations, some victims may be dishonest about what occurred during certain incidents.

Self-Report Surveys

Self-Report Surveys rely on offenders (and victims) to disclose information associated with the offenses in which they were involved. As with the NCVS, Self-Report Surveys capture offenses that were not reported to the police and were not recorded in the UCR. The strengths of Self-Report Surveys are that they do, in fact, include data on narcotics use, crimes not documented in the UCR, and offenders’ personal information, such as names and addresses. The weaknesses of the survey are (1) people often do not complete them due to their reluctance to report some personal information; (2) many offenders are not willing to provide incriminating information about themselves after they have already gotten away with their criminal acts; (3) the survey is not sent to those who are incarcerated; and (4) the survey relies too heavily on honesty and memory.

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. In order to better understand the challenges of the Uniform Crime Report, what are some ways to ensure its accuracy?

2. Do you believe self-report surveys should still be used as a method of collecting crime and delinquency data? Why or why not?

3. Do you believe the National Crime Victimization Survey is accurate? Why or why not?

4. If you were given the responsibility of creating a new method of recording crime, what would that method entail, and how would you ensure its accuracy?

Chapter Summary

Research Perspective

While the Uniform Crime Report is currently considered the most accurate method for recording crime and delinquency statistics in the United States, perceptions of the frequency of crime occurrence can significantly be attributed to how often one views crime coverage in the news and on their social media timelines. Traditional media and social media both have the ability to evoke or suggest perceptions about crime that do not reflect an accurate state of reality. Review the research in this chapter titled Media, and Social Media’s Influence on Perceptions of Crime. It examines the impact that traditional media and social media have on Americans’ perceptions of crime rates in the United States. In addition, the research explores the association between the frequency of viewing media outlets and the prevalence of the use of social media and how it impacts one’s perception of crime rates.

* * *

Media and Social Media’s Impact on Citizens’ Perception of the

Frequency of Crime Occurrence in the United States

By

James R. Jones, Ph.D.

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to examine the impact that traditional media and social media have on Americans’ perceptions of crime rates in the United States. In addition, the research also explores the association between the frequency of viewing media outlets and the prevalence of the use of social media and how it impacts one’s perception of crime rates. 370 people were surveyed as research participants. Closed-ended surveys were utilized, and the following research question was asked: How much does traditional media and social media influence your perception of how often crime occurs? A multinomial logistic regression was conducted to determine the extent to which perceptions of rates of crime occurrence were related to the outcome measures.

INTRODUCTION

Some scholars suggest that the majority of Americans use social media to keep in contact with family and friends as well as to get information on politics and crime. For many, social media is the primary source for obtaining national and international news. In addition, traditional media outlets like television, radio, print media, and periodicals provide viewers, listeners, and readers with continuous coverage of crime in local, regional, and international locales. However, coverage does not always reflect the accuracy of crime statistics.

Often, the media creates the idea that crime is more prevalent than it actually is. This fallacy is, in part, due to the disproportionate airing of criminal activity relative to the broadcasting of other types of news. In addition, social media outlets, such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter, also contribute significantly to citizens’ perceptions of how often crime occurs. The ease of sharing immediate, abundant, and repetitive criminal news and activity via social networks, coupled with the saturation of crime updates throughout the conventional network outlets create a fallacy that manipulates the accuracy of the perceived level of crime occurrence in America.

Currently, overall crime in the United States is down, a trend that has