Public Policy and Development in Developing Nations: Selected Cases

By Ola Abegunde

Public policy analysis has been an area of great interest in Political Science and Public Administration. The contributions of scholars like, Yehezkel Dror, Thomas Dye, Bruce Doern and others have helped to examine the style and approaches that have added to our understanding of public policies. In this collection of fourteen essays, public policy is examined in ranging environments: Greece, Zimbabwe, Nigeria and South Africa. The policies of these countries and some other issues relating to social security, poverty/welfare consumer rights are covered.

The first paper introduces us to the differences between public and private policies and shows the importance of giving the right place to the former in the orderly society.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Oct 7, 2015
• ISBN: 9781514405338

Ola Abegunde

Ola Abegunde is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Political Science, Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria formerly University of Ado Ekiti, Nigeria. He is a holder of Ph.D degree in Political Science from the same University. His areas of research interests are: Federal and Ethnics Studies, Policy Analysis, Public Administration, Democracy and Development Studies, Peace and Conflict Studies. He was a Fellow of North-west University, Department of Politics, International Relations and Peace Studies, Mafikeng, South Africa, between 2012 and 2013. He has published extensively in both local and foreign journals, attended and presented research papers in conferences in many countries of the world. He was a member, Zimbabwe African Union Long-Term Election Observer in the 2013. He co-edited (i) “Introduction to Peace and Conflict Studies: The Nigerian Perspective” with Dr. A.A Agagu and Dr. Femi Omotoso in 2007. (ii) “Peace and Conflict Studies in Nigeria” with Dr. A.A Agagu and Dr. Femi Omotoso in 2007. (iii) “Elements of Public Administration” with Professor A.A Agagu in 2009 (iv). “State, Society and Economy: An Introduction” with Professor A.A Agagu and Dr. Femi Omtoso in 2010. (v). “Governance, Politics and Policies in Nigeria; An Essay in Honour of Professor Dipo Kolawole” with Dr. Femi Omotoso and Professor A.A Agagu in 2010.

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PUBLIC

POLICY

AND

DEVELOPMENT

IN DEVELOPING NATIONS:

SELECTED

CASES

OLA ABEGUNDE

Copyright © 2015 by Ola Abegunde.

Library of Congress Control Number:   2015914597

ISBN:      Hardcover      978-1-5144-0532-1

                Softcover        978-1-5144-0534-5

                eBook             978-1-5144-0533-8

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

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Rev. date: 10/05/2015

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Concept and Subject Matters of Public Policy

Chapter 2 Strengthening Public Policy Implementation in Nigeria

Chapter 3 Nigeria’s Foreign Policy Towards Africa in the 21st Century

Chapter 4 Bureaucratic Politics and the Policy Process in Nigeria

Chapter 5 Consolidating Nigerian Democracy: Time to Enhance Ethics and Accountability Systems of the State Bureaucratic Institutions

Chapter 6 An Understanding of the Deep-Rooted Relationship Between Poverty and Social Security System in South Africa

Chapter 7 Public Policy, Good Governance and the Challenges of Development in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic

Chapter 8 Exploring the Connection Between Social Welfare and Poverty Reduction in South Africa

Chapter 9 Consumer Psychology, Consumer Right and Public Policy in a Nation Without Standard

Chapter 10 The Complexities of Political Participation in South African Public Policy Making

Chapter 11 Welfarism and Social Service Delivery in Nigeria: The Case of a Receding State

Chapter 12 Working Away from a Pariah Status: Zimbabwe’s Defensive Foreign Policy Option

Chapter 13 The Policy of Austerity Measure: An Assessment of its Implications in Greece

Chapter 14 Public Policy and Development in Africa: Issues and Challenges

DEDICATION

To the eternal memory of my father, Pa Chief Akinyemi Ojo David Jehoiakim ABEGUNDE 1868 – 1988.

To my loving mother Chief Mrs. Florence Omowamide ABEGUNDE.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to appreciate my sister, friend and wife Folasade Abegunde for her understanding and keeping the home front while away to South Africa on fellowship for a year between 2012 and 2013. The fellowship which was more or less an academics asylum provided the impetus for this book project. I also appreciate my children Olugbolahan and Olugbolade for their understanding and cooperation.

I modestly appreciate Professor Dipo Kolawole who has successfully married gown and town, and has benevolently allowed me to benefit immensely from his wealth of experience. His mentorship role in my life has no doubt contributed substantially to the success of this book and by extension my academic attainment. Prof. Kolawole’s belief as often reflected in his much cherished quote: I do not celebrate effort but only celebrate success serves as source of inspiration and equally encouraged me to be dutiful and efficient in assigned responsibilities.

I am also proud to acknowledge Associate Professor Femi Omotoso my teacher, mentor and brother who always stand by me at every point of need. I particularly appreciate his encouragement and contributions to the success of this book.

This acknowledgement will be incomplete without appreciating my brother and sister from another mother, Barrister and Mrs Banji Dada (BBJ) for their hospitality particularly during my several visits to United States of America. BBJ’s diligence and decency in serving as the link between me and the book’s publisher is significantly commendable.

FORWARD

Public policy analysis has been an area of great interest in Political Science and Public Administration. The contributions of scholars like, Yehezkel Dror, Thomas Dye, Bruce Doern and others have helped to examine the style and approaches that have added to our understanding of public policies. In this collection of fourteen essays, public policy is examined in ranging environments: Greece, Zimbabwe, Nigeria and South Africa. The policies of these countries and some other issues relating to social security, poverty/welfare consumer rights are covered.

The first paper introduces us to the differences between public and private policies and shows the importance of giving the right place to the former in the orderly society.

Leadership is a crucial factor in setting guidelines, targets and getting the appropriate policy agenda. Two of the authors illustrate this as they set us to think of policies in ECOWAS, ECOMOG & NEPAD.

The importance of the bureaucratic and political elite working together has been acknowledged for some time now. Here one author brings it out as a pivot to high level success in national development.

In South Africa the social security policy has had little impact on poverty. In the same country the white paper for Social Welfare (1997) suggests an important place for the public institute in the implementation of public policies. The suggestion is inescapable that Africa National Congress and powerful financial groups must not be allowed to dominate the public role making. In Nigeria on the other hand, the coming of consumer rights into open market calls for policies that can protect/prevent frauds and unfair practices even then there is need as for scholars to follow up policies with good governance/implementation and feedback.

As many countries see the need for greater welfare package policies, the problem of corruption, insecurity and poor infrastructure have to be faced if Nigeria is to put up effective policies in the area. Similarly, policies towards austerity measures (and reducing debt crisis) are needed in Greece as they are in most developing nations. As one of the authors/observed national development and appropriate public policy grow in direct relationship in these countries. Someone sums it up as the need for an integrity system which brings bureaucratic ethics into public policy making.

The coverage is diverse and any reader of public policy will find a good portion addressed to him.

Prof R.F Ola

Department of Political Science

AFE BABALOLA UNIVERSITY

ADO-EKITI, NIGERIA.

THE EDITOR

Ola Abegunde is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Political Science, Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria formerly University of Ado Ekiti, Nigeria. He is a holder of Ph.D degree in Political Science from the same University. His areas of research interests are: Federal and Ethnics Studies, Policy Analysis, Public Administration, Democracy and Development Studies, Peace and Conflict Studies. He was a Fellow of North-west University, Department of Politics, International Relations and Peace Studies, Mafikeng, South Africa, between 2012 and 2013. He has published extensively in both local and foreign journals, attended and presented research papers in conferences in many countries of the world. He was a member, Zimbabwe African Union Long-Term Election Observer in the 2013. He co-edited (i) Introduction to Peace and Conflict Studies: The Nigerian Perspective with Dr. A.A Agagu and Dr. Femi Omotoso in 2007. (ii) Peace and Conflict Studies in Nigeria with Dr. A.A Agagu and Dr. Femi Omotoso in 2007. (iii) Elements of Public Administration with Professor A.A Agagu in 2009 (iv). State, Society and Economy: An Introduction with Professor A.A Agagu and Dr. Femi Omtoso in 2010. (v). Governance, Politics and Policies in Nigeria; An Essay in Honour of Professor Dipo Kolawole with Dr. Femi Omotoso and Professor A.A Agagu in 2010.

Note on Contributors:

Abegunde, Ola

Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science, Ekiti State University (Formally University of Ado-Ekiti) Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

Adesopo, Ayo

Associate Professor and Lecturer, Department of Public Administration Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

Agagu, Akinsola A.

Professor and Lecturer Department of Political Science, Ekiti State University (Formally University of Ado-Ekiti) Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

Akinyemi, Temitope E.

Doctoral Candidate, Department of Political Science, School of Social Sciences, College of Humanities, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietemaritzburg Campus, South Africa.

Amusan, Lere

Professor and Lecturer Department of Politics and International Relations, North West University Mafikeng campus South Africa.

Apeloko, David O.

Lecturer, Department of public Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

Ayeni, Oluwadare O.

Lecturer, Department of Public Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

Gisele, Mah

Lecturer, Department of Economics, North West University, Mafikeng Campus, South Africa.

Maseng, Jonathan Oshunpeng

Lecturer, Department of Politics and International Relations, North West University, Mafikeng campus, South Africa.

Mojaki, Rathebe Michael

Lecturer, Department of Sociology, North West University, Mafikeng campus, South Africa.

Omotoso, Femi

Associate Professor and lecturer Department of Political Science, Ekiti State University (Formally University of Ado-Ekiti) Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

Owolabi, Ademola B.

Senior Lecturer, Department of Psycology, Ekiti State University (Formally University of Ado-Ekiti) Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

Chapter One

Concept and Subject Matters of Public Policy

by

Ola Abegunde

Abstract

The development, stability or otherwise of any nation in the world is essentially determined by the effectiveness of polices of such a nation. The best policy in the world but with an undue interference of government leadership and has no of independent institutions for its implementation will remain as good as an ordinary documentation that lack effect on the society the policy is meant to improve. The inability of most world leaders to differentiate between private and public policy has been one of the banes of the contemporary worlds’ development. Public policy or policies are to government like map, compass or plan that gives direction to geographers, sailors and architects respectively. In the developed world, there is a clear distinction between public and private policy such that leadership interest will not be portrayed as public policy, but in the developing world, private policies are often depicted as public policies by government leadership not minding the implications of such on the society. It is therefore on the bases of these that the study defines and reviews related concepts to public policy, examines its features, its determinants, its challenges and its ideas and ideals… Based on the above, it is suggested that lack of public policy and absence of established structures and functional institutions of government to regulate the activities of policy makers make it possible for the decisions of the government leadership to be interpreted and imposed as public policy. This situation disrupts continuous development, structural maintenance and orderly society which are hallmarks of developed countries of the world.

Keywords: public policy, private policy, developed world, developing world, and leadership.

Introduction

In the contemporary world, there are established institutions of government with constitutional responsibilities to cater for the needs and well-being of the citizens in accordance with available resources and according to their laws of establishment. Hence, public discourse has been overwhelmed with the advocacy or criticism of various government policies in every human society. Such policies of government range from economic policy, defense policy, foreign policy, education policy, agricultural policy, social policy, health policy and many other policies that affect government, corporations and individuals within the polity. Policies made by government, communities, groups, social organizations, religious organizations, labour groups, educational institutions, business organizations and many recognized bodies and government institutions affect and influence lives of citizens, the environment and all the activities in the society one way or the other. In the developed world policy making are serious business of government that requires professionalism for its process. In the developing, world policy and policy making are mostly the reflection of the wishes of the leadership, and this is key to non-sustainability and eventual failure of public policy in the developing word.

Public policy is what government puts into effect daily with the aid of public officials in providing solutions to the identified problems in the society and also in projecting for the future needs of the society. In view of the aforementioned, Agagu (2010:1) submits that, public policies in developed countries have brought about tremendous improvement in both the quality of lives of individuals and the states in general. He further argues that the tremendous improvement brought to the society was as a result of the rigour and the comprehensive analysis of the various policies and their implementation. Similarly, Ikelegbe (1994:1) argues that government commit much time, energy and resources to the development of policies, some take years to make, but once made, they are so emphasized as the big guiding stick in related areas of activities. Therefore, the concept of policy is central to governments, private organizations and individuals in association with certain care and values in the society.

Public policies in a modern, complex society are indeed ubiquitous in such that they affect every individual and institution within the polity. Also, Anderson argues that they confer advantages and disadvantages; cause pleasure, irritation, and pain, and collectively have important consequences for our well-being and happiness (Anderson 2011:1). In the developed world government makes its policies to suit public opinion because public opinion is one of the major factors that government and decision – makers usually take into consideration when formulating policies that will affect the general society and their well-being. However, in the developing countries, leadership interest is mostly projected as public interest. In other words, government leadership presents their personal agenda as public needs and influences such as public opinion in support of public policy through propaganda in the medias. This enables the government to kick start white elephant programmes/ projects which could win public support for the government and policy makers’ prefer such policies, instead of formulating public-based policies that will suit public opinion for public advantage.

In other to put this work in proper perspective, this chapter is structured into five sections. The first part examines definitions of some concepts and features of public policy. The second part dwells on the distinctions between policy and decision. The third part of it discusses the determinant factors of public policy. The fourth part identifies the challenges of public policy and the last section focuses on the ideas and ideals of public policy.

Definition of Concepts and Features of Public Policy

At this juncture, it is necessary to conceptualize some basic terms that are often misconstrued and interchangeably used in public policy and its analysis. Therefore, clarification of concepts in this study will aid better understanding of public policy and public policy analysis.

Decision - It is an act that involves making a choice from among alternatives. It is an action taken in reaction to certain needs that require an urgent attention. Decision is an action taken by individuals, organizations, institutions or governments in response to a problem that requires an urgent solution. A decision can be taken in line with existing policy of government or establishments to stimulate peace restore peace in order to bring about development. Hence, it is an action taken within a short period of time because of an urgent need to resolve a problem or problems that need an urgent attention to bring normalcy to the system. The action taken by a university management to suspend all academic activities in response to students’ demonstration can be referred to as a decision to put an end to the students’ demonstration and further allow for peaceful resolution of the problem that led to the demonstration. Imposition of curfew by government on a particular area can also be said to be part of decisions taken by such government to restore peace in that particular area.

Therefore, decision is a short term action taken by concerned authority or individuals to correct abnormalities and to allow for implementation or enforcement of rules in order to ensure a normal situation that will guarantee peaceful co-existence in the society.

Policy – A policy is a decision taken to resolve a reoccurring problem or a similar problem within a given period of time, (either a short or a long period of time) with a view to achieving certain objectives. Policies can be nothing more than window – dressing; an attempt to be seen as doing something but without any realistic expectation that the national objective will be achieved (Hague and Harrop, 2010: 367). This suggests that there are some policies that are formulated just to occupy space without necessarily achieving a particularly defined objective. Hague and Harrop (2004: 309), submit that a policy is a broader notion than a decision. They explain that, at a minimum, a policy covers a bundle of decisions; more generally, it reflects to an intention to decide in a particular way in the future. Hill (1993: 47) opines that, policy is a product of political influence, determining and setting limits to what the state does. He further explains that when a policy maker takes a decision or chooses a course of action in order to solve a social problem and adopts a specific strategy for its planning and implementation, it is known as public policy.

In a broader prospective, in the developed world a policy is a broad decision statement that reflects future goals and aspirations, and provides guidelines for implementation of the set goals within a defined legal frame of operation. Policies mostly transcend regimes in the developed world because governance is a continuous process; hence government’s projects and programmes are not abandoned, because they are products of public opinion and are meant for the interest of the society and not a product of individuals’ interest. It became possible to have such policies in the developed countries because of the availability of regulatory institutions that always work in accordance with the interest of the general society. On the other hand, leaderships in developing countries are mostly fond of setting up committees, panels of enquiry or summits on issues that decisions had been made by government leadership (kitchen cabinet) to present such decisions as a product or outcome of the deliberation of the body set up by government, and therefore present their findings as public opinion. This is mostly done by the government in order to be seen as working but without any realistic and new outcome for the good of the public, rather as a means of legitimizing the decision or decisions of the leadership of government and present such as public opinion.

Public Policy - In any organized polity, it is the responsibility of government and its various agencies to make policies that will positively affect the lives of people and their environment. Therefore, public policy is the action taken by government or its authorized institutions or agencies directed at achieving a defined goal for a defined period of time. According to Agagu (2010: 32), public policy can be seen as an intention, pronouncement, a general plan or actions adopted by government to solve a social problem, counter a threat, deal with a given circumstance, or pursue an objective in a given state. In another view, Kousoulas (1982: 313 – 314) submits that public policy is an aggregate of decisions and plans formulated by governmental authorities to deal with public and social problems and to determine the disposition of state revenues and other resources.

Public policy encompasses governmental decisions expressed in legislative enactments, decrees, proclamation, executive statements, budgets and judicial decisions to solve societal problems or pursue a defined objective for the interest of the general society. The fact remains that public policy is an output of the government process which involves the use of state coercive agencies to ensure compliance, or a process viewed as legitimate and accorded voluntary compliance; hence, a large percentage of national resources both human and material resources are expended on its successful implementation.

Private Policy - Private policy simply refers to individual decisions that do not have any direct link with government policies. It is an individual decision with regards to ways of handling various problems or issues that are seen as requiring individual actions. Private policies are mostly products of individual environmental influence. Mostly in the third world countries, the policies of leaders which at best can be referred to as private policies are presented and implemented as public policies because policies of their regimes are not subjected to public debate and scrutiny before implementation as a result of lack of policy regulatory institutions. In a broader view, private policy includes individual actions or course of actions directed at achieving certain self-known and defined goal. In the emerging democracies, leaders do set up committees or organize programmes that will show their loyalty to the state by just putting a seal on leaders’ predetermined decision(s) on certain issues, and, thereafter, present such as public opinion based on its ratification by the selected few by the initiator of the policy. At individual level, policies are made based on personal conviction and experience on issues that will serve as guiding principles for their day to day decision making. In most cases individuals with policies are viewed as rigid individuals in the society, simply because virtually all their actions and programmes are policy oriented, and they hardly take action on issues not in conformity with their policies.

Programme – This is the means, logistics or methods designed to achieve the actions, intentions and policies of either individuals or government. A programme is a set of activities designed and set in motion to implement a particular policy. According to Ikelegbe (1994: 4), programme is the actual set of structure, procedures, personnel, funds, activities and actions through which a policy is carried out. Therefore, without effective programme in place, policies cannot be implemented; hence, they will just remain at the level of paper work without implementation and effect. As fuel is to an engine of a car, so programme is to any policy, hence, without programme, policies will remain ordinary ideas on paper.

Public Policy Analysis: Public policy analysis is an attempt and a process of intellectualizing the works of senior public and civil servants, which are the theoretical aspect of governance of any government. It is a process of examining, analyzing, intellectualizing and evaluating the totality of public policy regarding its formulation, implementation and relevance to the society it is meant for. In the opinion of Omotoso (2010: 55), it is a systematic investigation of alternative public policy options and the assembly and integration of the evidence for and against each option. He further submits that, public policy analysis is an attempt to evaluate the extent to which the major goals of government have been achieved because when a government or a public agency does not meet the needs of its clientele not only in terms of material delivery but also in terms of transparent and accountability, then such public agency or government has violated its raison d’etre.

In the view of Ikelegbe (1994: 5), public policy analysis is the study of the causes, processes, formation, implementation and consequences of public policy. He further explains that as an academic endeavor, it is aimed at improving the basis for public policy making, the content, the knowledge about the outcomes and impact of public policy and ways and means of improving public policy performances.

Public policy analysis is a systematic way of investigating and evaluating the decisions, policies and programmes of government; why they embark on them, what method the government is using for implementation; what value and difference the policies will make or they are to make in the society. It is important for public policy to be analysed and evaluated because it will help the government to know: the areas where there is need for improvement, the acceptability of a particular policy in the society and the kind of policy to formulate and implement for which kind of people. Lastly, it allows the government to do a self-evaluation. This will also allow the government to prepare for a better alternative when there is need for such, with the aim of improving the living condition of the people in the polity and ensuring their peaceful co-existence.

Features of Public Policy

For any policy to be considered as public policy it must revolve round government and all its agencies. Hence, we shall be discussing the following as its features:

First, government policies are actions taken by government agencies within a defined environment and on a particular issue. These are products of short term or long term needs of the society as identified and agreed on by government established institutions meant for policy formulation and implementation for the well-being of the society.

Second, the implementation of public policy requires the use of state institutions and agencies to enforce and ensure compliance of the public to the policies in such that noncompliance will meet with the wrath of the law. In a similar related submission by Jackson (2001: 499), the primary distinguishing feature of public policy is that it is ultimately backed by the force of law and coercive sanction of the state. The implication of this is that once there is government established institution for policy formulation and implementation, all its actions will be legitimate and backed by law as they are beyond individual action and interest.

Third, implementation of public policies involves the expenditure of public resources in such that for any policy to be successful there is need to reasonably commit both material resources and dedicated human beings to the effective implementation for better output. Corroborating this, Ikelegbe (1994: 4) submits that a large percentage of national resources are spent on the implementation of public policy programme.

Fourth, the expression of public policy is usually through executive, pronouncement or official statement, judicial decision and legislative enactment of laws in a democratic state. The individual occupying and acting in official capacity in the above mentioned arms of government are officials of government performing the roles of policy formulation and policy implementation on behalf of government. However, their actions must not be personally motivated; rather they should be based on public policy for public interest.

Fifth, public policy or state policies must be such that will provide solutions to societal problems, particularly problems considered to require collective action to resolve by not allowing the personal interest of the country leader to prevail over public interest. For example, the political, ethnic and religious problems in most of the developing countries require policies that may affect the policy makers if collective action is to be taken in bringing about a long and lasting solution to the problems.

Determinants of Public Policy

As regimes and policies differ from state to state so also the determinants of public policy differ but this study will mainly focus on issues that determine or contribute to the determinant of public policy irrespective of the kind, type of regime of government in place. Therefore, this study will holistically view the determinants of public policies.

The type of government is a major determinant of public policy in any polity. In a democratic system of government, public policies are formulated as a result of societal needs or in projection for the future needs, while an authoritarian government will impose tis policies on the citizens not minding their opinions or the effect of such policies on the polity. A democratic government puts its citizens into consideration in its policy formulation and implementation, while an authoritarian government only puts into consideration the policy makers because of their benefits and not minding the implications on the general society. The experiences in the developing countries have revealed that most of their leaders even those branded as democratic and human rights activists before ascending to political leadership are authoritarian democrats based on how they enforce their decisions on the society and depict such as public policy.

National interest is another major determinant of public policy, in that national interest is the continuation of domestic or local interest which is a product of public policy. Issues that bother on the collective interest of the whole, such as security, form of government, among others are always taken into consideration while formulating policies.

Membership of an international organization restricts and defines the interest of member states in that policies of government of member states, local, national and international must align with the interest of its international associations.

Public opinion is another determinant of public policy, because government as policy maker is for the citizens and not the citizens for the government in a true democratic society. In an ideal situation, government is to serve the interest of the citizen in making life comfortable and bearable for them by making available basic infrastructures. This can only be achieved when there are established institutions and personnel for policy formulation where citizens can freely express their opinion on burning issues affecting them and thereafter formulate and implement policy that will address them and alleviate the suffering of the majority of the citizens.

Interest groups are an essential factor in determining public policy on issues affecting their members. In Nigeria for example, the amnesty programme for the militants in the Niger Delta was as a result of the Niger Delta’s unending agitation for the control of the resource in their region. Corroborating this is the argument of Johari (2005: