African American Musical Heritage: An Appreciation, Historical Summary, and Guide to Music Fundamentals

By Lenard C. Bowie

LENARD C. BOWIE, DMA
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF MUSIC, RETIRED
THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH FLORIDA
JACKSONVILLE , FLORIDA
Dr. Lenard C. Bowie has developed an enviable reputation as a consummate musician. He is a classical trumpet
artist, accomplished band director, effective music administrator, skilled lecturer and publi shed author. As an
author, Bowie's expertise in several fields of endeavor has been documented through the following subjects, as
published in the professional music journals indicated: "Solving Problems of Young Trumpet Players, "
published in the Music Educators National Journal (December, J979) , a critical review of "Black University Marching Bands in the 80's." published by The Marching Band (January, 198 1), and the Proceedings of an Informal Research Conference whose mission was to document the extent to which African American music courses were offered in Florida's Public Schools was published by the Florida Music Educator (June, 2002).
As an undergraduate, Bowie was plagued bymany questions concerning the absence of formal instruction in the music of his people, especially when considering the fact that there were only two authentic types of American music -- that of the American Indians and that of African Americans, with African American Music being the most important of the two. Bowie's search for answers to his probing questions began
when he enrolled in Professor Willie Ruffs course in Black Music as a graduate student at Yale University in 1974. This course opened Bowie's eyes, ears and mind to many of his here-to-fore unanswered questions; including the extent to which African music traditions are practiced in African American Music today, and the impact that African American Music has made on the social, political, economic, and religious climates
of modern American Society.
After graduating from Yale with a Master of Musical Arts Degree in 1976, Bowie struck out on a mission to enlarge on what he had learned about African American Music.This mission brought him in contact with a wealth of information through independent study of numerous publications and documentaries; lectures, festivals, concerts; and personal contacts with scholars who were, or have become, major players in the
research, dissemination, performance and composition of African American Music. Some of these scholars include former colleagues Dr.Oily W. Wilson, composer and Chair of Composition at UCLA , Berkeley, Samuel Floyd, Founder and Director of the Center for Black Music
Research, found at Fisk University, now housed at ColumbiaCollege,Chicago,Dr. AaronHorne,AfricanAmericanMusic Biographer and Dean of Fine Arts, Winston Salem Unive rsity, North Caro lina, Aramentha Adams - Hummings, Founder and Director ofthe Gateways Music Festival , initiated at the North Carolina School of the Arts, now housed at the East man School of Music in Rochester,New York, Operatic Tenor and Music
Educator, the late Dr. William A, Brown. Others include Dr. Portia Maultsby, Professor of Music at Indiana University, Dr. Dena Epstein, Retired Music Librarian, Archival Researcher and Author, Chicago, Dr. Rene Boyer-White, Professor of Music Education, College-Conservatory of Music, The University of Cincinnati, and Dr. John Smith, Dean of Fine Arts, The Univers ity of South Florida at Tampa. During the first of Dr. Bowie's two terms as Music Department Chair at The University of North Florida, he was afforded an opportunity to apply and distribute his long sought know ledge. The opportunity came in the form ofa Mill ion Dollar Endowment from the Koger
Company to develop programs of study in American Music. The response of the faculty to the endowmentwas to institute two programs: a Jazz Studies Program and a program in African American Music. The Jazz Studies Program has become nationally recognized for outstanding achievements in jazz theory, history and performance. The latter program , designed and developed by Bowie, was chall

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Jan 30, 2012
• ISBN: 9781465305756

Lenard C. Bowie

Meet DR. LENARD C. BOWIE, Associate Professor of Trumpet Emeritus The University of North Florida Jacksonville, Florida Dr. Lenard C. Bowie served as a professor in the State University System of Florida for 46 years – 22 years at Florida A and M University as Trumpet teacher and Associate Director of Bands and 22 years at the University of North Florida as Trumpet Teacher, Founding Director of Instrumental Music and Director of the African American Music Program. He also served the University of North Florida as Chair of the Departments of Fine Arts and Music for two terms. During the last thirty years, Bowie has maintained a high degree of visibility as a respected and influential figure in Jacksonville’s music community. He has performed with the Jacksonville Symphony, and was a charter member, Assistant Principal Trumpet and Soloist with the St. Johns River City Band. As a member of the St. Johns River City Band, Bowie performed with a number of major artists, including Rich Matteson, Dave Brubeck, Lionel Hampton, Henry Butler, Danny Davis (Nashville Brass), Martha Reeves and the Vandellas, Chet Atkins, Al Hurt and Dizzy Gillespie. The St. Johns River City Band has performed throughout the State of Florida and made a triumphant performance at New York’s Carnegie Hall. It could be said that Bowie’s music specialty is the brass quintet, owing to the fact that he has provided leadership to five such organizations, including the University of North Florida Brass Quintet, the River City Brass Quintet, the St. Johns River City Band Brass Quintet, Gabriel’s Brass, (resident ensemble of the Bethel Baptist Institutional Church), and currently with the Jacksonville Chamber Brass Players. Bowie has performed and/or conducted pit bands for local musical theatrical productions of “Purlie”, “Little Shop of Horrors”, “The Barber of Fleet Street”, “Ain’t Misbehavin’”, and “Jesus Christ, Super Star”. He has given of his time and service as Founding Director of the University of North Florida Community Band, Associate Director of the Jacksonville Community Band and Guest Conductor of the Northeast Florida Music Conservatory Community Band. On a broader scale, Bowie has performed with the West Side Symphony of New York city, the Yale University Music Theatre Orchestra, the New Haven (Connecticut) Opera Theater Orchestra, and the Bi-Centennial Festival Orchestra of New England. He has engaged in freelance performances with the Ringling Brothers - Barnum and Bailey Circus Bands, Gladys Knight and the Pips, Isaac Hayes and the Movement, Johnny Taylor, and matinee performances with Danny Kaye and Bob Hope. Dr. Bowie is also a published author, having written four articles for professional music journals and four textbooks, two of which are Trumpet Method Books, -- PHYSICAL THERAPIES FOR THE NOVICE TRUMPET STUDENT, a handbook of solutions to common performance problems, and THE CYCLIC SYSTEM OF TRUMPET TRANSPOSITION, Bowie’s original system and approach to orchestral transposition for trumpet. Bowie holds a Bachelor of Science Degree in Music Education from Florida A&M University, a Master of Music Degree in Trumpet Performance from the Manhattan School of Music, and an advanced Master of Musical Arts and Doctor of Musical Arts Degrees from Yale University. He has studied the trumpet professionally with Edward Treutle, of the Hudson Studios of Englewood, New Jersey; Nathan Prager, of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, and Robert Nagle, Leader of the New York Brass Quintet and Trumpet Professor of Yale University. Although retired from full-time university teaching, Bowie is still active as a private trumpet teacher, performer and clinician. He also avails himself as a lecturer in African American Music and Marching Band Techniques. He has also served as a part-time instructor of Music Theory and Applied Trumpet at Edward Waters College and Albany State University, respectively.

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Copyright © 2011 by Lenard C. Bowie, DMA.

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Contents

Acknowledgments

Foreword

Introduction

PART I

Chapter 1

The Theory And Practice Of Music In The Eurocentric Model

Chapter 2

WEST AFRICAN CULTURAL TRADITIONS AND MUSIC PRACTICES

PART II

Chapter 3

CULTURAL AND SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES IN THE NEW WORLD

Chapter 4

AFRICAN AMERICAN FOLK MUSIC

PART III

Introduction

Chapter 5

PRE-JAZZ GENRES AND STYLES

Chapter 6

THE EVOLUTION OF AFRICAN AMERICAN RELIGIOUS MUSIC

Chapter 7

JAZZ: AMERICA’S CLASSICAL MUSIC

Chapter 8

AFRICAN AMERICAN POPULAR MUSIC

PART IV

Chapter 9

AFRICAN AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS AND INFLUENCES ON EURO-AMERICAN ART MUSIC

Summary

AFRICAN AMERICAN MUSICAL HERITAGE

An Appreciation, Historical Summary, and

Guide to Music Fundamentals

By Lenard C. Bowie, DMA

Illustrations by Keith Doles

Edited by Patrice L. Bowie

AFRICAN AMERICAN MUSICAL HERITAGE

IS DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF MY PARENTS,

Jim and Ula Mae Bowie,

MR.%20AND%20MRS.%20JIM%20BOWIE001.jpg

AND THE LOVE OF MY LIFE, MY DEAR DEPARTED WIFE,

Audrey Wilson Bowie

MS.%20AUDREY%20W.%20BOWIE001.jpg

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to express thanks and appreciation to the following individuals for their contributions to this book:

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH FLORIDA CONSULTANTS

Dr. William A. Brown, Distinguished Professor of Music

Vernice Bunky Green, Director of Jazz Studies

Dianne Kozlowski and Cynthia Valentine, Media Librarians

Kamele Oupa Seane, Director, Intercultural Center for Peace

Dr. William Lavant, Pastor: New Bethel M. B. Church, Jacksonville, Florida.

PROOF READER AND EDITOR

Patrice LeNette Bowie

MARKETING DIRECTOR

Patsy Bowie Bivens

COMPUTER SYSTEMS ADVISORS AND ASSISTANT

Lewis E. Moore * Annie Hawkins Bryant * Tonja Candy Lester *

Keith Doles

RECORDING ENGINEERING

Lewis E. Moore

PHOTOGRAPHY

Lenard C. Bowie * Tonja Lester * Lewis Moore

COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Keith Doles

FIELD TESTING

Over 6,000 University of North Florida Students

Adult Music Appreciation Classes of Jacksonville University

Epcot Center, Orlando, Florida * Duval County Public Schools

Brunswick, Georgia Public Library * Jacksonville, Florida Public Libraries

Bethel Baptist Institutional Church, Jacksonville, Florida.

Florida State College of Jacksonville, Florida

Foreword

BY DR. WILLIAM A. BROWN

When one considers the enormous impact and influence of African American Music on America’s music, and the fact that until 1971 there were no suitable African American Music textbooks, it is nothing short of a gross enigma. Eileen Southern’s, The Music of Black Americans—A History, was the first such historical documentation of African American musical contributions to the world, written by an African American. Since Dr. Southern’s historic compilation appeared, four other texts suitable for an overview of African American Music have become available: Hildred Roach’s, Black American Music: Past and Present, 1976; Samuel L. Floyd’s, The Power of Black Music, 1995; John Storm Robert’s, Black Music of Two World’s, 1998; and Earl L. Stewart’s, African American Music, An Introduction, 1998. Lenard Bowie’s, African American Musical Heritage: An Appreciation, Historical Summary and Guide to Music Fundamentals, is the first to address the practical aspects of this music and its impact on the way Americans react to it.

Dr. Bowie’s organizational approach to his text is somewhat taken from the time honored models as perfected by the likes of Joseph Machalis’ The Enjoyment of Music and Joseph Kerman’s Listening. With the former, there are chapters that explore the rudiments of music, history, and a section that could be considered hands-on material. Kerman’s book is mainly concerned with the historical significance of the music in relationship to its philosophical and psychological gestation. Dr. Bowie has taken a combination of both approaches and instilled them with an uncanny insight as to how music composed by African Americans differ from the mainstream and why this music has tremendous influence in today’s world musical community.

There are a number of unique entities which make Dr. Bowie’s text a notable addition to this genre. The Listening and Study Guide Analyses utilize a musical phrase by phrase approach, while fostering an understanding of form, structure and organization. This approach allows the student to actually hear, follow, and understand the organization of both melodic and lyric material. In doing so, he sets as a foundation for understanding simple forms, such as one, two, and three-part songs, as well as blues and march forms, as an introduction to understanding extended forms such as rondo, and sonata forms.

His chronological coordination and comparison of music examples from a stylistic point of view is logically presented. Historical overviews of each chapter give credence to performers as an integral part of the success of the written composition. This is a rather novel notion, since the traditional view of music history is from the perspective of music composition. Perhaps the most startling departure is at the end of each genre discussed and Chapter Nine, where Dr. Bowie shows how African retentive stylistic elements in African American music contributed to and influenced all styles of American and a number of world musics beyond the folk genres. This wide range of influences impacted art music, European derived music, popular music, jazz, religious music, as well as music of the theater, commercial jingles, opera, chamber, and orchestral music. It is a formidable undertaking with repertoire lists to prove his assertions.

Dr. Bowie has made an amazing contribution to the study of African American Music with his simplistic and reader-friendly style of writing and clarity of presentation. The subject matter is comprehensible without losing its seriousness in scholarship. This text should go a long way in spreading the wonders of African American Music.

WILLIAM A. BROWN, Distinguished Professor of Music

University of North Florida, Jacksonville

Introduction

The music of African Americans and Native Americans are the only authentic representations of music created in America. All other musics were either imported here or built on music models from other countries. Of the two, African American music is the more important of the two, since it has influenced every genre, type, and style of music existing in America today. Because of this credibility and visibility, the author has endeavored to celebrate the cultural legacy of this music by developing a non-technical, reader friendly textbook for use at secondary school and collegiate levels, as well as for lay adult readers.

African American Musical Heritage has been designed as a music appreciation textbook that will provide the reader who has little or no musical training with an understanding of general music terminology, along with a summary of African American culture and history. Although African American music is the central focus of this book, certain universal musical concepts are presented through the presentation, discussion and analysis of a variety of European, African, American, and African American music genres and styles. In spite of the comprehensiveness of this book, it makes no claim to discuss all music created by African Americans, nor does it purport to discuss all African American music makers, innovators or practitioners. Instead, considerable effort has been made to discuss the major genres and styles of African American Music, its principal innovators, composers and the more significant practitioners.

From the outset of this book it should be explained that Chapter One on European music is presented to educate and assist the reader in understanding the music terminology and vocabulary used throughout the book. It is not intended to imply that African Music is defined by European music principles.

A unique feature of this book is the Music Listening Component. The orientation and consumption of music by the average person reading this book will be strictly from an aural perspective. Therefore, musical thoughts, ideas and events are illustrated herein by actual music examples. Six re-mastered compact discs of 117 music selections, coordinated with 117 Listening and Study Guides, accompany this book. These Listening and Study Guides direct the reader’s ear to specific music elements, components, events, and actions as they occur on a phrase-by-phrase, chorus-by-chorus basis.

A number of these analyses have been excerpted due to licensing restrictions. Whenever an analysis has been excerpted, at least one complete chorus or section is included in the accompanying analysis. Therefore, the remainder of the recorded selection being analyzed will continue in the same form and action of the analyzed excerpt.

Typical music appreciation books start where this book ends. That is to say, the person having studied this book will have developed mature listening skills, will be able to recognize and analyze basic song forms, styles and other fundamental music skills. The last and final chapter of this book comes full circle and introduces large vocal and instrumental music forms—the point where most appreciation books begin. In the opinion of the author, the approach taken in this book is a more rational one since it introduces the more complex music elements, after basic music fundamentals have been taught and ingested.

With the exception of the art music selections in Chapter 9, the author has not consulted or studied any scores of the music analyzed in this book. The analyses made here are based on standard practices in music theory, forms, and basic tenants of music organization, as practiced by composers and song writers through the years. This is explained in the event some of the analyses appear to be in error,

i.e., an analysis may indicate the meter of a tune to be in 4, when in actuality, it may be in 2. Your teacher will explain how the actual computation of the pulse can be interpreted both ways.

It is hoped that you enjoy reading, learning and listening to the music that is part of our African American Heritage.

Lenard C. Bowie, DMA

PART I

Foundations And Legacies

Chapter 1

The Theory And Practice Of Music In The Eurocentric Model

African American music is a synthesis of European and African musical thought, elements and practices. Therefore, it is important that the reader become knowledgeable about and conversant with the differences in uses, principles and practices of music in both European and African cultures. For these reasons, we will begin this musical odyssey with a brief discussion of European music thought, elements and practices which will be contrasted with African thought, elements and practices prior to engaging in discussions about African American music proper.

EUROPEAN MUSIC PRACTICES

Music, as we know it in the Western Hemisphere today, evolved from a number of European practices, traditions, thoughts, and experiments. These processes have grown from simple functional musical roots in ancient times to highly complex works of art today that require a high degree of intelligence and training to decipher. From these traditions, a number of philosophical, artistic and stylistic periods were born and have produced a diversity of musical styles as summarized in the following chart:

PERIOD DATES STYLES,FORMS AND MUSIC CONVENTIONS

Medieval 500-1400 Music sanctioned by the Early Church consists of modes and monophonic* Chants

Renaissance 1400-1600 Rise of polyphony** and Madrigals

Baroque 1600-1750 Development of mass, oratorio and instrumental music

Classical 1750-1815 Rise of the Symphony and Opera

Romantic 1815-1900 Rise of chromatic and program Music

Contemporary 1900 to Present Development of impressionistic, and atonal music

THE ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD

The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that took place in Europe during the 1700’s, and can be viewed as the historical period marked by questioning doctrines and values, with a tendency toward individualism and the empirical method of science. It was also the point where the mythical, religious and functional roots of European music making were redefined and the craft of music composition matured into full bloom as a fine art. To be certain, great examples of musical masterpieces existed prior to this time:

e.g., the monumental works of Palestrina, the great works of the Netherlands Composers, the masterpieces of the great German composer, Johann Sebastian Bach, and the strains of Italian Opera were spreading through- out Europe.

The concept of fine art, simply stated, is the creation and production of things beautiful and humane, versus things that are mythical or supernatural. Fine Art expression and appreciation are closely linked to intellectual, aesthetic and moral development since they aid in the direct development of experiences that—

A—pertain to beauty, are about beauty, are beautiful.

B—heightens and enhances the senses

C—develops the capacity to perceive and appreciate through . . .

1—external stimuli: (Sight, Sound, Smell, Taste, and Touch)

2—internal stimuli: (Hunger, Thirst, Sex, Movement)

3—rationale: feeling, realization, cognition (Right-vs.-Wrong)

After 1700, music was considered a fine art along with disciplines like literature, drama, painting, sculpture and architecture. As fine arts, these disciplines became subject to critical analysis and probing questions regarding their aesthetic and artistic merits. The fine arts not only raise questions to be pondered, but also introduce us to the concept of abstract thinking.

To think in the abstract is to exercise the imagination by forging from the possible to the probable. To think of things that are probable implies making a connection between what is possible and what is probable and how does one cross that indefinable line that exists between the two? Abstract thinking forges far a field of things that are actual, exact, precise, factual, ideal or pictorial. Instead, one takes cues from his mental faculties and brings together what is seen, heard, or suggested by the sounds, shapes, energy, and temperament of what is being perceived, and transforms these mental signals into what could be perceived as "probable".

A music composition need not be pictorial or graphic, or have a story line in order for it to convey special thoughts, meanings, emotions or passion. Although storytelling is a primary role of popular music, it is a secondary role of formal concert music. In non-pictorial concert music genres, the listener finds meaning by taking cues from several music elements such as, pitch, volume, speed, tonality, harmony and texture. When combined with a melody or melodic gestures, specific music scenarios ensue which stimulates the listener’s mind where he or she may perceive the possibility or probability of certain thoughts, feelings or emotions. These thoughts may run the gamut of emotions from hate to love, or from sadness to joy.

The Enlightenment was born out of the probability thinking and writings of two leading philosophers of the day, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. John Locke proved himself to be one of England’s great thinkers and philosophers. As the foundation for his many thoughts and writings, Locke theorized that there were no inborn ideas. He believed all that anyone can know is what has been learned through previous experience. His philosophies are deeply engrained in modern principles of American education.

In his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, the great French author and philosopher, Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) defined 18th Century European fine arts as the useless arts, and defined science as the useful arts. His Discourse ascribes the fine arts as existing primarily for aesthetic pleasure, entertainment and the fulfillment of leisure time for the wealthy. On the other hand, he ascribes the knowledge and skills required in the sciences as being useful arts because they contribute to the quality and sustenance of human life, as in the medical arts, animal husbandry, and horticulture.

Rousseau’s philosophical ideals became deeply engrained in the European psyche and has become the tradition in so far as European arts are concerned. Since only the aristocracy and the wealthy were (supposed to be) patrons of the fine arts, middle-class people were left to their own devices for making music and appreciating the art. Consequently, music resulting from folk traditions in the Western Hemisphere are not looked upon nor respected as works of art. Since most African American music is inspired from folk traditions, one can readily understand why this music has not garnered the kind of respect it deserves from a Euro—American point of view.

FINE ARTS IN THE EUROPEAN ENLIGHTENMENT MODEL

The development, codification, and subsequent universal acceptance of a sophisticated system of written art music has been built from, and validated by probing questions and experiments on philosophical theories, music elements, natural laws, and artistic symbolisms. These concepts reached full bloom during the Enlightenment and have advanced the cause and development of music in the Eurocentric model for over seven centuries. The sum total of these systems and their symbolisms are referred to as the International Language. This language has become the standard by which music produced in the Western Hemisphere is analyzed, critiqued and evaluated.

The foundation of European music thought is conveyed through the development and usage of a complex and sophisticated set of terms, signs and symbols referred to as music elements.

EUROCENTRIC MUSIC ELEMENTS

SOUND AND PITCH

The fundamental element of music is SOUND. Sound is derived from the energy produced by two opposing forces as they encounter each other in a manner sufficient to set them into vibratory motion—motion that ultimately changes the air pressure in the immediate environment of the human ear. An explosion, the clapping of hands, the stomping of feet, air forced through puckered lips, or the actions of a hammer or bow on a piano or violin string, are examples of processes by which vibratory motion can effect changes in air pressure to result in the phenomena we know as sound.

There are two types of sound—non-pitched and pitched sounds. Non-pitched sounds (sudden explosion, clapping hands, stomping feet) are conveyed through vibratory motions that are random, inconsistent and uncontrolled. The term normally used to describe non-pitched sounds is noise. Pitched sounds (a whistling sound, vibrating piano or violin string) are created from a continual series of vibrations that are fixed, even and controlled. The term pitch refers to the consistent highness (height) or lowness (depth) of a musical sound. Pitched sounds are often referred to as ‘tones’.

MUSIC NOTATION

Written Music is conveyed through graphic symbols that represent organized pitched and non-pitched sounds and silences executed within specific periods of time. A set of graphic symbols used to represent these pitched and non-pitched sounds and their respective periods of duration is called music notation, or notes. Notes can only be perceived mentally or visually, while the actual sounds (tones) they represent can only be perceived mentally or aurally. The purpose of music notation, therefore, is to indicate the pitch (height or depth) and duration (length) of sounds and silences when used in a musical context.

Since music consists of both pitched and non-pitched sounds, non-pitched sounds are represented by symbols that indicate relative pitch, simply as high, low or somewhere in between, as used in notating non-pitched percussion instrument parts (see ex. A of Fig. 1). Pitched sounds are represented, graphically, by note symbols placed on various positions of a five-line, four-space staff. The higher a note is placed on the staff, represents the higher the corresponding pitch will sound, and vice-versa (see ex. B of Fig. 1). Silences are notated by symbols called rests. Duration of sounds are represented by graphic symbols called notes that are graded from short to long (see ex. C of Fig. 1). Notes of longest duration in common time are represented by an open head oval-shaped note. Its value can be reduced to one half its value by adding a stem, and reduced further incrementally in halves by solidifying the open head and progressively adding one, two, three or four flags to the stem, respectively. Rests carry these same lengths of time in silence as their counterpart notes carry in sound.

figure1-REVISED-Notes%20and%20rests%20of%20relative%20duration.jpg

Figure 1—Notes and rests of relative duration in common time.

Ex. A—Non-Pitched Sounds Ex. B—Pitched Sounds,

Ex. C—Notes, rests and their basic values

METER

Duration in music is delineated by the elements known as meter and rhythm. Listen to the WASHINGTON POST MARCH, in Listening and Study Guide Disc No.1, Track 1. Now clap your hands in time with the music. Instinctively, you will sense or feel a steady pulse, or beats. Notice that these pulse beats recur at regular intervals without interruption throughout the march. Notice also that some of the beats seem to be stronger, or accented, more than others, especially on tones of longer duration. The grouping of these accented and non-accented beats establishes the parameters for what is referred to as meter. Hence, meter, in music, is represented by a series of evenly spaced beats that are organized into groups by the occurrence of an accented beat, followed by one or more unaccented beats. Metric groupings are cyclic, with beat one always falling on the strongest of the recurring accented beats. The unaccented beats that follow are counted cumulatively upward until another accented beat occurs, thereby starting a new metric cycle.

In written music, each grouping of beats is placed within the confines of what are known as measures. The physical boundaries of a measure are delineated by vertical lines, called bar lines, drawn across the aforementioned five-line, four-space music staff, (see Figure 4). The space within these boundaries constitutes a measure of music, proper.

figure04-Progression%20in%20constructing%20a%20two-beat%20meter.JPG

Figure 2—Progression in constructing a two-beat metric pattern:

(1) sensing the basic pulse, (2) adding accents to the first of both pulses,

(3) counting the pulse beats and, (4) delineating ‘measures’ by adding bar lines.

The process of counting a series of measures, cumulatively, progresses from "beat one" through the highest number of beats indicated by a representative time signature. Time signatures are indicated by two numbers in vertical order at the beginning of each staff line of music. The top number represents the number of beats in a measure. Likewise, the bottom number represents the value of the metric unit that will receive one primary beat. Thus, a time signature of 4/4 indicates four primary beats in each measure, with a quarter note receiving one primary beat. By the same token, a 6/8 time signature would indicate six primary beats to a measure, with each eighth note receiving one primary beat.

CUMULATIVE COUNTING

The progression from one measure to another within a phrase, section or movement, can be achieved by a process of cumulative counting. Counting cumulative measures in 4/4 time within a standard eight-measure phrase would progress in the following order:

1—2—3—4-| 2—2—3—4—| 3—2—3—4—| 4—2—3—4—|, and cumulatively upward until the 8th measure is reached. When counting 6/8 time in the same cumulative manner, the same eight measure phrase length would be achieved by counting as follows:

1—2—3—4—5—6—|2—2—3—4—5—6—| 3—2—3—4—5—6—| 4—2—3—4—5—6|, and cumulatively upward until the eighth measure is reached.

The same counting process can be applied to any and all metric groupings by applying a literal translation of the time signature.

TYPES OF METER

It is not unusual for the casual listener to encounter music created in compound and complex meters. These meters may range from three, five, six, seven, nine or twelve primary beats per measure as indicated by the bottom number in the time signature. The difference in metric types is determined by the manner in which primary beats are divided into subdivisions, or sub-pulses.

Beats are represented by up and downward movements of the foot. For every downbeat there is a corresponding upbeat. Before you can tap your foot downward, you must first lift it upward. A complete cycle of down-up-down, or up-down-up movements of the foot, constitutes one complete primary beat of music time. In such event, primary beats may be divided into two equal parts, with each part called a sub-pulse. Consequently, a primary beat that is divided into two equal parts is referred to as simple meter.

figure05-Illustration%20of%20up%20and%20down%20beats.jpg

FIGURE 3—Illustration of Up and Downbeats.

Listen to MARY HAD A LITTLE LAMB, in Listening and Study Guide Disc No. 1, Track 2. Notice that there are either two words or syllables to almost every primary beat in the song. The metric type for this kind of division is called simple meter. Since there are two primary beats to each measure, the music is said to be in duple meter. Overall, the meter of MARY HAD A LITTLE LAMB would be categorized as simple duple meter.

figure06-Illustration%20of%20Simple%20Duple%20Meter.JPG

FIGURE 4—Illustration of Simple Duple Meter.

A composition having three primary beats per measure, with each primary beat divided into two sub-pulses, would be referred to as simple triple meter, i.e, THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER, in Listening and Study Guide Disc No.1, Track 4. Likewise, a composition having four primary beats per measure, and whose beats are divided into two sub-pulses, would be categorized as simple quadruple meter. Most music is written or conceived in simple quadruple time. That being the case, a capital C is often used to represent "Common Time as a substitute for 4 beats per measure. Likewise, simple two beat meters are often represented by a C" with a line drawn through it, indicating a four beat pattern divided into halves, and commonly referred to as "CUT-TIME".

COMPOUND METER

When primary beats are divided into three sub-pulses, the metric type is said to be compound. In compound meter, you will hear three distinct sub-pulses on each primary beat in the melody, the accompaniment or in both. Music having two primary beats with the rhythm of each respective beat having three sub-pulses, would be categorized as compound duple meter. Music having three or four primary beats per measure, with each primary beat divided into three sub-pulses, would be categorized as compound triple, or compound quadruple meter respectively.

John Phillip Sousa’s WASHINGTON POST, in Listening and Study Guide Disc No.1, Track 1, is an excellent example of compound duple meter.

figure07-Illustration%20of%20Compound%20Duple%20Meter.JPG

FIGURE 5—Illustration of Compound Duple Meter.

COMPLEX METER

In complex meters, there is usually a combination of alternating groupings of two and three sub-pulses for each primary beat in a measure of music. As an example, complex duple meter consists of two sub-pulses on beat one, alternating with three sub-pulses on beat two. These alternating combinations give the impression that one beat is longer than the other, thereby making the rhythmic pattern appear to be uneven. TAKE 5, in Listening and Study Guide Disc No. 1, Track 3 provides an excellent and consistent example of complex meter from beginning to end. The metric groupings are 123-45; 123-45, etc. throughout the length of the tune.

Figure 6 illustrates complex metric groupings. Practice clapping and counting these groupings while tapping your foot to the primary beats indicated by accent marks (>).

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FIGURE 6—Illustration of Complex Metric Groupings.

RHYTHM

Rhythm in music is manifest by variations in the duration of specific units of sounds and silences. Rhythm, therefore, is the arrangement of notes and note values in a particular meter. Rhythm is the element that fuels the movement of music.

Listen to MARY HAD A LITTLE LAMB again. While listening, sense the pulse and clap in time with it. Notice the varying lengths or duration of the words. These differences in duration establish the parameters for the element of rhythm. Rhythm is inextricably linked to meter, since it is impossible for rhythm to exist without the presence or existence of meter. However, meter can exist without the presence of rhythm.

In far too many instances, meter and rhythm are often misconstrued by the lay listener. A typical response to the question, What do you like most about a particular song?, is: THE BEAT!! Any statement that speaks to, of, or about beats in a music context, is a direct reference to meter. However, the context in which the foregoing answer was made shows a clear intent to describe the rhythmic character of the music, since meter is repetitive and stagnant, while rhythm is vibrant, alive and constantly changing.

In listening to MARY HAD A LITTLE LAMB, it was noted that some words were of longer duration than others. Since sounds of shorter duration tend to gravitate toward sounds of longer duration, the music is given an illusion of movement. This effect can be illustrated quite clearly by the use of a rhythm line.

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Figure 7—Rhythm Line to MARY HAD A LITTLE LAMB .

Study Figure 7 while listening to the song on the recording. Tap your foot to the primary beats and clap your hands in time with the rhythm of the words. In doing so, you will note that that each time the word, lamb on the first line is referenced, it is held for one full beat, while the last word on the second line, snow, is held for two full beats. Observe, also, that there are either two words or two syllables to each primary beat for all other words of the song.

Meter and rhythm are the most important elements in the music of primitive societies. Since the roots of the music studied in this book stem from ancient Africa, it is important to understand the most important rhythmic practices inherited from primitive Africa.

SYNCOPATION AND POLYMERS

In most European music, the rhythms move concurrently with the beats, resulting in a smooth, flowing and controlled musical movement. In African music, or that derived from African origins, many of its rhythms are manipulated to move against the beat. The effect is a stronger sense of musical movement, which tends to tug at the body as if defying the natural pull of gravity. There are numerous ways in which rhythms can be manipulated to achieve this effect. The two most common practices that aid in achieving this effect in African and African American music are syncopation and polymers.

Syncopation is a rhythmic process wherein strong and weak beats are exchanged in position and function. Normally, beat one is the strongest beat in the measure. The downbeat, (when the foot makes contact with the floor in foot tapping), constitutes the strongest part of the beat. In a syncopated pattern, the strongest part of beat is shifted from the downbeat to the upbeat.

Polymers, also known as poly rhythms or cross rhythms are achieved when simple metric groupings are combined with compound metric groupings with both being performed simultaneously around the same principal beats.

To better understand the concept of syncopation and poly rhythms, students are encouraged and challenged to practice the following exercises:

Exercises on Syncopation

(1) Tap your foot at a moderate speed, counting 1,2,3,4, etc. each time your foot touches the floor. While tapping and counting, begin clapping on each beat striking hardest on beat one and lightly on beats two, three and four.

(2) Continue to tap your foot while counting in four. Now change the clap pattern by striking hardest on beats two and four. The rhythmic effect here is what is referred to as on-the-beat syncopation, and what early jazz musicians referred to back-beats.

(3) Continue tapping and counting in four. This time, clap your hands only when you lift your foot from the floor. Notice that tapping your foot and clapping your hands in this manner seems to create a tug of war between them. The rhythmic effect here is referred to as off-beat-syncopation. Off-beat syncopation is what early jazz musicians referred to as fast time.

(4) Search through the Listening Guide recordings and find music examples of on and off-beat syncopation. When you play the radio or listen to your personal record collection, can you recognize either or both, on or off-beat syncopation?

Exercises on Polymers

(1) Team up with a classmate. Both begin tapping your feet to the same beat. Now one of you clap two equal times (down and up beats), to every time you tap your foot, while the other person claps three equal times to every tap of the foot. The cumulative effect of this exercise is that of poly rhythms.

(2) Practice the same exercise alone by following this process: while tapping your foot, begin clapping your left hand against your left thigh twice to every single tap of the foot. After you are comfortable with this pattern, add the right hand by clapping against the right thigh three times to every single tap of the foot. The same poly rhythmic effect of number one above is achieved.

MELODIC STRUCTURE, ORGANIZATION AND FORM

In the introduction to their book, A Practical Approach To The Study Of Form In Music, Drs. Peter Spencer and Peter Temko*** state:

"A musical composition is the result of a process by which complete structures are built from smaller units. On an obvious level, a symphony is typically organized in several discrete units called movements. The organization of smaller pieces without such obvious divisions is the result of the same process. The understanding of a complex musical entity, therefore, depends upon the understanding of relationships between smaller units within that entity. Such an understanding is dependent upon locating those at which the larger structure is divided into smaller sections. Thus, the first analytical tool on the task of formal perception is the development of a sensitivity to those musical phenomena that help identify those points."

They continue by identifying music elements that are fundamental to delineating structural units required in the development of a coherent music framework. Summary definitions of music elements most important and conducive to this discourse are presented hereunder:

Motive (motif): A motif or motive is the smallest melodic or rhythmic germ cell that express a basic music idea. That idea is expanded into a musical thought, which in turn, is expanded into a chain of musical thoughts. Some thoughts are expressed in the same manner, while others are expressed differently. Listen to the STAR SPANGLED BANNER, in Listening and Study Guide Disc No. 1, Track 4. Through careful observation, you will note that the three-note, ‘hop-skip-hop’ motif beginning with the words, "Oo-oh say . . .", is repeated throughout the song in one way or another. This is an excellent example of how a mere melodic idea can be developed into a phrase, song, section or movement.

Cadence: A cadence is reached when the music activity signals either a partial or complete point of repose in a music thought or phrase. Such signals are characterized by a pause in, or cessation of melodic activity, and are referred