Intertextual Borrowing between 1 Peter and Hebrews: Probability of Literary Dependence and the Most Likely Direction of Borrowing

By Elizabeth A. Myers

OVERVIEW: The literary relationship between 1 Peter and Hebrews has long been a topic of interest in New Testament studies. The presence of numerous verbal and conceptual parallels between the two books has raised intriguing questions about the nature of the intertextual relationship. Can this phenomenon be explained as mer

• Language: English
• Publisher: Pistos Ktistes Publishing LLC
• Release date: Dec 15, 2020
• ISBN: 9781953133052

Elizabeth A. Myers

Elizabeth Myers is an independent New Testament scholar with education and experience in biblical and scientific fields of study. She holds academic degrees in multiple disciplines, including PhD (Biblical Studies), ThM, MDiv, MS (Management of Technology), and BS (Electrical Engineering and Computer Science).

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Copyright

Intertextual Borrowing between 1 Peter

and Hebrews

Probability of Literary Dependence and the Most Likely Direction

of Borrowing

Copyright © 2020 Elizabeth A. Myers

All Rights Reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the nonexclusive, nontransferable right to access and view the content of this publication with an e-book reader application or device. Other than fair use as allowed by law, no part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted, decompiled, reverse-engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system other than your own personal e-book library, in any form or by any means, whether electronic, mechanical, chemical, biological, photonic, or otherwise, now known or hereafter invented, without the express written permission of Pistos

Ktistes Publishing LLC

.

Published 2020 by

Pistos Ktistes Publishing LLC

1 Adobe Creek Drive

Cody, WY 82414 USA

Cover Design: Elizabeth A. Myers

Cover Graphics: Overlaid transcriptions of 1 Peter 4 and Hebrews 13, based on the text of

Codex Siniaticus

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020910970

ISBN (hardback): 978-1-953133-03-8

ISBN (paperback): 978-1-953133-04-5

ISBN (e-book): 978-1-953133-05-2

About

About this Book

The literary relationship between 1 Peter and Hebrews has long been a topic of interest in New Testament studies. The presence of numerous verbal and conceptual parallels between the two books has raised intriguing questions about the nature of the intertextual relationship. Can this phenomenon be explained as mere coincidence or as independent reflections of a common milieu? Or might this be a case of literary borrowing by one of the authors? If so, who borrowed from whom? Scholars largely have acknowledged that 1 Peter and Hebrews exhibit a remarkable degree of parallelism, and even that one of the writings may have been significantly influenced in some way by the other. Nonetheless, there has been little support for the idea that the literary parallels between 1 Peter and Hebrews are the result of intertextual borrowing. Most NT scholars attribute the similarities to indirect sources of influence. However, the research methods employed in the past have proved neither comprehensive nor systematic, and the results are inconclusive.

In this book, Elizabeth Myers presents a comprehensive systematic analysis of the literary parallels between 1 Peter and Hebrews that not only rectifies methodological shortfalls of previous studies, but also reveals the probable nature of the intertextual relationship. Through the rigorous application of an innovative assessment methodology which applies probability theory to specific features of the parallel texts, Myers clearly demonstrates that literary dependence between 1 Peter and Hebrews is highly probable and that the author of Hebrews is far more likely to be the borrower of parallel material. Thus Myers concludes with high confidence that the author of Hebrews very likely knew and used 1 Peter while crafting the epistle to the Hebrews. Such a conclusion raises important new questions about these two NT books, the answers to which may have far-reaching implications for exegetical study of both documents.

About the Author

Elizabeth Myers is an independent New Testament scholar with education and experience in biblical and scientific fields of study. She holds academic degrees in multiple disciplines, including PhD (Biblical Studies), ThM, MDiv, MS (Management of Technology), and BS (Electrical Engineering and Computer Science).

Other Books by the Author

Authorship of 1 Peter and Hebrews:

New Evidence in Light of Probable Intertextual Borrowing

Probability of Intertextual Borrowing:

A Methodology for Determining the Likelihood of Literary Dependence and the Direction of Borrowing between New Testament Books

Contents

Copyright

About

Figures

Tables

Abbreviations

Introduction

Chapter

1. Probability of Literary Dependence

Procedure

Selection of Parallels

Probability Analysis

Single-Word Parallels

Parallel #1: Undefiled (ἀμίαντος) (

1 Pet

1:4 || Heb 7:26)

Parallel #2: Sojourner (παρεπίδημος) (

1 Pet 2:11 || Heb 11:13)

Parallel #3: Sympathetic-Sympathize (συμπαθής-συμπαθέω) (

1 Pet 3:8 || Heb 10:34)

Parallel #4: Antitype (ἀντίτυπος) (

1 Pet

3:21 || Heb 9:24)

Parallel #5: Intention (ἔννοια) (

1 Pet 4:1 || Heb 4:12)

Parallel #6: Astonish/Entertain (ξενίζω) (

1 Pet 4:4 || Heb 13:2)

Parallel #7: Willingly (ἑκουσίως) (

1 Pet 5:2 || Heb 10:26)

Repositioned Word-Group Parallels

Parallel #8: An Enduring Inheritance (

1 Pet 1:4 || Heb 9:15)

Parallel #9: Sinlessness of Christ (1) (

1 Pet 1:19 || Heb 9:28)

Parallel #10: Christ in the Last Times/Days (

1 Pet 1:20 || Heb 1:2)

Parallel #11: Brotherly Love (1) (

1 Pet 1:22 || Heb 13:1)

Parallel #12: Lay Aside All Evil Behavior (

1 Pet

2:1 || Heb 12:1)

Parallel #13: Brotherly Love (2) (

1 Pet 2:17 || Heb 13:1)

Parallel #14: Shepherd of the Sheep (

1 Pet 2:25 || Heb 13:20)

Parallel #15: Inherit a Blessing (

1 Pet 3:9 || Heb 12:17)

Parallel #16: Pursue Peace (

1 Pet 3:11 || Heb 12:14)

Parallel #17: Have a Good Conscience (

1 Pet

3:16 || Heb 13:18)

Parallel #18: Sinlessness of Christ (3) (

1 Pet 3:18 || Heb 9:28)

Parallel #19: Noah Prepares an Ark (

1 Pet 3:20 || Heb 11:7)

Parallel #20: Give an Account (

1 Pet 4:5 || Heb 13:17)

Unclustered Fan Parallels

Parallel #21: Sprinkling of Blood (

1 Pet 1:2 || Heb

12:24)

Parallel #22: Seeing the Unseen Things of God (

1 Pet 1:7–8 || Heb 2:9a)

Parallel #23: Come to God (

1 Pet 2:4 || Heb 11:6)

Parallel #24: Sanctify via Sacrificial Suffering (

1 Pet 3:14–15 || Heb 13:12)

Parallel #25: Christ Sacrificed for Sins Once (

1 Pet 3:18 || Heb 9:28)

Parallel #26: Christ at the Right Hand of God (

1 Pet

3:22 || Heb 10:12)

Parallel #27: Bearing Christ’s Reproach (

1 Pet 4:14 || Heb 13:13)

Fan Cluster

Parallel #28: Christian Community as a House (

1 Pet 2:5a || Heb 3:6)

Parallel #29: God’s Son/Sons as a Priesthood (

1 Pet 2:5b || Heb 5:10)

Parallel #30: Offer Up Sacrifices (

1 Pet 2:5c || Heb 13:15)

Parallel FC1: Identity of Christ/Christians (

1 Pet 2:5 || Heb

3:2—13:15)

First Word-Group Cluster

Parallel #31: Suffering of Christ Leads to Glory (

1 Pet 1:11 || Heb 2:9b)

Parallel #32: Spirit Testimony of the Gospel (

1 Pet 1:12 || Heb 2:3–4)

Parallel WC1: Revelation of Jesus Christ (

1 Pet 1:7–12 || Heb 2:3–10)

Second Word-Group Cluster

Parallel #33: Fear God Now (

1 Pet 1:17 || Heb 4:1)

Parallel #34: Ordained Since the Foundation of the World (

1 Pet 1:20 || Heb 4:3)

Parallel #35: The Living Word of God (

1 Pet 1:23 || Heb 4:12)

Parallel #36: You/We Have Been Evangelized (

1 Pet 1:25 || Heb 4:2)

Parallel WC2: Fear the Word of God (

1 Pet 1:17–25 || Heb 4:1–12)

Third Word-Group Cluster

Parallel #37: Redeemed Not With Perishable Things (

1 Pet 1:18 || Heb 9:11–12)

Parallel #38: Redeemed With the Blood of Christ (

1 Pet 1:19 || Heb 9:12)

Parallel #39: The Blood of Christ As Unblemished (

1 Pet 1:19 || Heb 9:14)

Parallel #40: Christ at the Foundation of the World (

1 Pet 1:20a || Heb 9:26a)

Parallel #41: Christ Manifested in the End Time (

1 Pet 1:20b || Heb 9:26b)

Parallel WC3: Christ’s Mission Objective (

1 Pet 1:18–20 || Heb 9:11–26)

Fourth Word-Group Cluster

Parallel #42: Immature Infants (

1 Pet 2:2 || Heb 5:13)

Parallel #43: Developmental Teaching As Milk (

1 Pet 2:2 || Heb 5:12–13)

Parallel #44: Need for Spiritual Growth (

1 Pet 2:2 || Heb 6:1)

Parallel #45: Taste the Goodness of God (

1 Pet 2:3 || Heb 6:4–5)

Parallel WC4: Christian Development (

1 Pet 2:2–3 || Heb 5:12—6:5)

Fifth Word-Group Cluster

Parallel #46: Sinlessness of Christ (2) (

1 Pet 2:22 || Heb 9:28)

Parallel #47: Judgment After Death (

1 Pet 2:23 || Heb 9:27)

Parallel #48: Christ Bearing Sins (

1 Pet 2:24 || Heb 9:28)

Parallel WC5: Christ’s Mission Operation (

1 Pet 2:22–24 || Heb 9:27–28)

Sixth Word-Group Cluster

Parallel #49: Conscience Cleansed via Sacrifice (

1 Pet 3:21 || Heb

10:2)

Parallel WC6: Christ’s Mission Accomplished (

1 Pet 3:18–22 || Heb 9:28—10:12)

Seventh Word-Group Cluster

Parallel #50: Jesus’ Fleshly Sacrifice (

1 Pet 4:1 || Heb 10:19–20)

Parallel #51: God Will Judge His Adversaries (

1 Pet 4:5 || Heb 10:27)

Parallel #52: The End Is Near (

1 Pet 4:7 || Heb 10:25)

Parallel #53: Mutual Love (

1 Pet

4:8 || Heb 10:24)

Parallel WC7: Embrace Opportunity to Live for God (

1 Pet 4:1–8 || Heb 10:19–27)

Eighth Word-Group Cluster

Parallel #54: Brotherly Love (3) (

1 Pet 4:8 || Heb 13:1)

Parallel #55: Be Hospitable (

1 Pet 4:9 || Heb 13:2)

Parallel #56: Speakers of the Word of God (

1 Pet 4:11a || Heb 13:7)

Parallel #57: Jesus Christ . . . Forever (

1 Pet 4:11b || Heb 13:8)

Parallel #58: Strange or Not? (

1 Pet 4:12 || Heb 13:9)

Parallel #59: Purposeful Suffering of Christ (

1 Pet 4:13 || Heb 13:12)

Parallel #60: Submit to Leaders (

1 Pet 5:5 || Heb 13:17)

Parallel #61: And the God of Grace/Peace Who . . . (

1 Pet 5:10a || Heb 13:20)

Parallel #62: God Completes You (

1 Pet 5:10b || Heb

13:21a)

Parallel #63: To Him/Whom Be the Power/Glory Forever, Amen (

1 Pet 5:11 || Heb 13:21b)

Parallel #64: Brief Written Exhortation (

1 Pet 5:12 || Heb 13:22)

Parallel WC8: Love and Sacrifice (

1 Pet 4:8—5:12|| Heb 13:1–22)

Ninth Word-Group Cluster

Parallel #65: Greetings From Others (

1 Pet 5:13 || Heb 13:24b)

Parallel #66: Greet Fellow Congregants (

1 Pet 5:14a || Heb 13:24a)

Parallel #67: Peace/Grace to You All (

1 Pet 5:14b || Heb 13:25)

Parallel WC9: Greetings and Benediction (

1 Pet 5:13–14|| Heb 13:24–25)

Cluster-Cluster Parallels

Parallel CC1: Call to Learn and Grow (

1 Pet 1:7—2:3 || Heb 2:3—6:5)

Parallel CC2: Christ’s Singular Sacrifice (

1 Pet 1:18—3:22 || Heb 9:11—10:12)

Parallel CC3: Call to Act (

1 Pet 4:1—5:14 || Heb 10:19—13:25)

The Likelihood of

Literary Dependence

Chapter

2. The Most Likely Direction of Borrowing

Procedure

Probability that 1 Peter Borrowed

Disturbance in the

Host Document

Summary of Results

Probability that Hebrews Borrowed

Disturbance in the

Host Document

Disturbance of Language

Disturbance of Style

Disturbance of Meaning

Consistency of Borrowing Practices

Logical Progression between

Parallel Elements

Progression of Structure

Progression of Thought

Progression of Function

External Source

Summary of Results

Evaluation of Alternative Scenarios

The Most Likely Direction

of Borrowing

Conclusion

Appendices

Appendix

A. Points Awarded for Indicators of Intertextual Borrowing

Appendix

B. List of Parallels between 1 Peter and Hebrews

Appendix

C. Rarity of Occurrence Scores (1 Peter || Hebrews)

Appendix

D. Verbal Correspondence Scores (1 Peter || Hebrews)

Appendix

E. Probability of Directness (1 Peter || Hebrews, Worst Case)

Appendix

F. Probability of Directness (1 Peter || Hebrews, Best Case)

Appendix

G. Abbreviations for Grammatical Properties

Appendix

H. Probability of Borrowing (1 Peter)

Appendix

I. Probability of Borrowing (Hebrews)

Works Cited

Primary Sources

Other Sources

Index of Scripture and Other Ancient Sources

Index of Modern Authors

Figures

1.1. Configuration of

fan parallel #21

1.2. Verbal correspondence of parallel #8

(1 Pet 1:4 || Heb 9:15)

1.3. Verbal correspondence of parallel #9

(1 Pet 1:19 || Heb 9:28)

1.4. Verbal correspondence of parallel #10

(1 Pet 1:20 || Heb 1:2)

1.5. Verbal correspondence of parallel #12

(1 Pet 2:1 || Heb 12:1)

1.6. Verbal correspondence of parallel #13

(1 Pet 2:17 || Heb 13:1)

1.7. Verbal correspondence of parallel #14

(1 Pet 2:25 || Heb 13:20)

1.8. Verbal correspondence of parallel #15

(1 Pet 3:9 || Heb 12:17)

1.9. Verbal correspondence of parallel #16

(1 Pet 3:11 || Heb 12:14)

1.10. Verbal correspondence of parallel #17

(1 Pet 3:16 || Heb 13:18)

1.11. Verbal correspondence of parallel #18

(1 Pet 3:18 || Heb 9:28)

1.12. Verbal correspondence of parallel #19

(1 Pet 3:20 || Heb 11:7)

1.13. Verbal correspondence of parallel #20

(1 Pet 4:5 || Heb 13:17)

1.14. Verbal correspondence of parallel #21

(1 Pet 1:2 || Heb 12:24)

1.15. Verbal correspondence of parallel #22

(1 Pet 1:7–8 || Heb 2:9a)

1.16. Verbal correspondence of parallel #23

(1 Pet 2:4 || Heb 11:6)

1.17. Verbal correspondence of parallel #24

(1 Pet 3:14–15 || Heb 13:12)

1.18. Verbal correspondence of parallel #25

(1 Pet 3:18 || Heb 9:28)

1.19. Verbal correspondence of parallel #26

(1 Pet 3:22 || Heb 10:12)

1.20. Verbal correspondence of parallel #27

(1 Pet 4:14 || Heb 13:13)

1.21. Arrangement of

fan cluster parallels

1.22. Verbal correspondence of parallel #28

(1 Pet 2:5a || Heb 3:6)

1.23. Verbal correspondence of parallel #29

(1 Pet 2:5b || Heb 5:10)

1.24. Verbal correspondence of parallel #30

(1 Pet 2:5c || Heb 13:15)

1.25. Verbal correspondence of parallel #32

(1 Pet 1:12 || Heb 2:3–4)

1.26. Verbal correspondence of parallel #33

(1 Pet 1:17 || Heb 4:1)

1.27. Verbal correspondence of parallel #34

(1 Pet 1:20 || Heb 4:3)

1.28. Verbal correspondence of parallel #35

(1 Pet 1:23 || Heb 4:12)

1.29. Verbal correspondence of parallel #36

(1 Pet 1:25 || Heb 4:2)

1.30. Verbal correspondence of parallel #37

(1 Pet 1:18 || Heb 9:11–12)

1.31. Verbal correspondence of parallel #38

(1 Pet 1:19 || Heb 9:12)

1.32. Verbal correspondence of parallel #39

(1 Pet 1:19 || Heb 9:14)

1.33. Verbal correspondence of parallel #40

(1 Pet 1:20a || Heb 9:26a)

1.34. Verbal correspondence of parallel #41

(1 Pet 1:20b || Heb 9:26b)

1.35. Verbal correspondence of parallel #42

(1 Pet 2:2 || Heb 5:13)

1.36. Verbal correspondence of parallel #44

(1 Pet 2:2 || Heb 6:1)

1.37. Verbal correspondence of parallel #45

(1 Pet 2:3 || Heb 6:4–5)

1.38. Verbal correspondence of parallel #48

(1 Pet 2:24 || Heb 9:28)

1.39. Verbal correspondence of parallel #50

(1 Pet 4:1 || Heb 10:19–20)

1.40. Verbal correspondence of parallel #51

(1 Pet 4:5 || Heb 10:27)

1.41. Verbal correspondence of parallel #52

(1 Pet 4:7 || Heb 10:25)

1.42. Verbal correspondence of parallel #53

(1 Pet 4:8 || Heb 10:24)

1.43. Verbal correspondence of parallel #54

(1 Pet 4:8 || Heb 13:1)

1.44. Verbal correspondence of parallel #55

(1 Pet 4:9 || Heb 13:2)

1.45. Verbal correspondence of parallel #56

(1 Pet 4:11a || Heb 13:7)

1.46. Verbal correspondence of parallel #57

(1 Pet 4:11b || Heb 13:8)

1.47. Verbal correspondence of parallel #58

(1 Pet 4:12 || Heb 13:9)

1.48. Verbal correspondence of parallel #59

(1 Pet 4:13 || Heb 13:12)

1.49. Verbal correspondence of parallel #60

(1 Pet 5:5 || Heb 13:17)

1.50. Verbal correspondence of parallel #61

(1 Pet 5:10a || Heb 13:20)

1.51. Verbal correspondence of parallel #62

(1 Pet 5:10b || Heb 13:21a)

1.52. Verbal correspondence of parallel #63

(1 Pet 5:11 || Heb 13:21b)

1.53. Verbal correspondence of parallel #64

(1 Pet 5:12 || Heb 13:22)

1.54. Verbal correspondence of parallel #65

(1 Pet 5:13 || Heb 13:24b)

1.55. Verbal correspondence of parallel #66

(1 Pet 5:14a || Heb 13:24a)

1.56. Verbal correspondence of parallel #67

(1 Pet 5:14b || Heb 13:25)

1.57. Arrangement of

word-group clusters

2.1. Parallelism in 1 Pet 4:11a

(parallel #56)

2.2. Structure of Heb 13:7

(parallel #56)

2.3. Significance of borrowing probabilities

(1 Peter || Hebrews)

2.4. Distant hook words

between Heb 2:4 and Heb 3:1

2.5. Intertextual hook phrases

between WC7 and WC8

2.6. Intertextual hook phrases

between WC3, WC5, and WC6

Tables

1.1. Categories and numbers of parallels

(1 Peter || Hebrews)

1.2. CPdir of single-word parallels

(worst case)

1.3. CPdir of repositioned word-group parallels

(worst case)

1.4. CPdir of unclustered fan parallels

(worst case)

1.5. CPdir of fan cluster parallels

(FC1, worst case)

1.6. CPdir of word-group cluster parallels

(WC1, worst case)

1.7. CPdir of word-group cluster parallels

(WC2, worst case)

1.8. CPdir of word-group cluster parallels

(WC3, worst case)

1.9. CPdir of word-group cluster parallels

(WC4, worst case)

1.10. CPdir of word-group cluster parallels

(WC5, worst case)

1.11. CPdir of word-group cluster parallels

(WC6, worst case)

1.12. CPdir of word-group cluster parallels

(WC7, worst case)

1.13. CPdir of word-group cluster parallels

(WC8, worst case)

1.14. CPdir of word-group cluster parallels

(WC9, worst case)

1.15. CPdir of cluster-cluster parallels

(worst case)

2.1. CPbor

(1 Peter)

2.2. Opening and closing elements

(NT epistles, Heb, and Rev)

2.3. CPbor

(Hebrews)

2.4. Summary of borrowing indicators

(1 Peter || Hebrews)

A.1. Points awarded for

specific indicators of directness

A.2. Points awarded for

specific indicators of borrowing

B.1. Single-Word Parallels

B.2. Repositioned

Word-Group Parallels

B.3. Fan Parallels

B.4. Clustered

Word-Group Parallels

B.5. Cluster-Cluster Parallels

C.1.a. Number of occurrences and works

(NT, LXX, Philo)

C.1.b. Number of occurrences and works

(NT, LXX, Philo)

C.2.a. Number of occurrences and works

(Jos., Pseud., AF)

C.2.b. Number of occurrences and works

(Jos., Pseud., AF)

C.3.a. Rarity of occurrence scores

(1 Peter || Hebrews, worst case)

C.3.b. Rarity of occurrence scores

(1 Peter || Hebrews, worst case)

C.4.a. Rarity of occurrence scores

(1 Peter || Hebrews, best case)

C.4.b. Rarity of occurrence scores

(1 Peter || Hebrews, best case)

D.1.a. Lexical, grammatical correspondence

(1 Peter || Hebrews)

D.1.b. Lexical, grammatical correspondence

(1 Peter || Hebrews)

E.1.a. Indicator Scores

(1 Peter || Hebrews, worst case)

E.1.b. Indicator Scores

(1 Peter || Hebrews, worst case)

E.2.a. Probability Calculation

(1 Peter || Hebrews, worst case)

E.2.b. Probability Calculation

(1 Peter || Hebrews, worst case)

F.1.a. Indicator Scores

(1 Peter || Hebrews, best case)

F.1.b. Indicator Scores

(1 Peter || Hebrews, best case)

F.2.a. Probability Calculation

(1 Peter || Hebrews, best case)

F.2.b. Probability Calculation

(1 Peter || Hebrews, best case)

G.1. Abbreviations

(verbs and verbals)

G.2. Abbreviations

(nouns and nominals)

H.1. Indicator Scores

(1 Peter)

H.2. Probability Calculation

(1 Peter)

I.1. Indicator Scores

(Hebrews)

I.2. Probability Calculation

(Hebrews)

Abbreviations

AB = Anchor Bible

ANE = The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations. 3rd edition. Edited and translated by Michael W. Holmes. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007

BECNT = Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

BNTC = Black’s New Testament Commentaries

CEB = Common English Bible

CQR = Church Quarterly Review

CurBR = Currents in Biblical Research

EBib = Études bibliques

ESV = English Standard Version

FRLANT = Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments

HNTC = Harper’s New Testament Commentaries

LXX = Septuagint

NA²⁷ = Novum Testamentum Graece, Nestle-Aland, 27th ed.

NAC = New American Commentary

NASB = New American Standard Bible

NCB = New Century Bible

NET = New English Translation

NETS = A New English Translation of the Septuagint

NICNT = New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIGTC = New International Greek Testament Commentary

NIV = New International Version

NovTSup = Supplements to Novum Testamentum

NRSV = New Revised Standard Version

NTL = New Testament Library

SNTSMS = Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series

TRu = Theologische Rundschau

WBC = Word Biblical Commentary

WC = Westminster Commentaries

WTJ = Westminster Theological Journal

WUNT = Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

Introduction

This book addresses a curious phenomenon involving 1 Peter and Hebrews, namely, the presence of numerous verbal and conceptual parallels shared between the two documents. The parallels raise the question of a possible relationship between these books. Can this phenomenon be explained as mere coincidence or as independent use of a common tradition? Or might this be a case of literary borrowing? Many New Testament scholars have explored the possibility of an interdependent literary relationship, but the research methods employed in the past have proved neither comprehensive nor systematic, and results have been inconclusive. The study published in this book not only rectifies methodological shortfalls of previous studies, but also reveals the probable nature of the intertextual relat

ionship.

As a study of intertextuality, the project has potential implications for multiple facets of New Testament scholarship. Indeed, conclusive analysis of the relationship between two NT documents might contribute to our understanding of document-writing in the NT world. This includes the compositional practices of NT writers and the circulation patterns of early Christian writings. This project’s potential contribution to NT exegetical methodology might also be significant. If direct literary interdependence can be demonstrated between 1 Peter and Hebrews, then it is likely that one of the authors had access to the other document and used it in the crafting of his own written work. Accordingly, the two documents might be interpreted in light of one another. This kind of close literary relationship could prove helpful for interpretation of ambiguous terms, theological concepts, and possibly even grammatical constructions. The likelihood of literary dependence might also help resolve text-critical issues, especially when considering transcriptional and intrinsic probabilities.¹ Finally, a clear demonstration of literary dependence between the two documents would provide a literary foundation from which to explore the question of who borrowed from whom and thereby establish the relative dating of the two writings. Despite the prospect of important benefits resulting from a study of the numerous parallels between 1 Peter and Hebrews, previous studies have failed to reach consensus regarding the likelihood of literary dependence, let alone any consensus regarding who is most likely to have used whom and, hence, the relative temporal priority of the do

cuments.

The relationship between Hebrews and 1 Peter has long been a topic of interest in New Testament studies. Many scholars have noted numerous conceptual resemblances and verbal connections that might suggest more than just mere coincidence or independent reflections of a common milieu. Although the striking similarities have raised many questions about the relationship between these two books, a clear answer has not emerged. This probably is due in part to the fact that the topic is most frequently addressed as a peripheral issue attached to a greater primary topic such as the authorship or dating of Hebrews or 1 Peter. For example, in a discussion of the authorship of Hebrews, Paul Ellingworth claims that [t]he points of contact between Hebrews and 1 Peter, though insufficient to suggest common authorship, are nevertheless real and significant. The number of words used only by 1 Peter and Hebrews in the NT is no greater than one would expect.² Noting that parallels for other terms and themes are also found in the Gospels, the Pauline letters, and the OT, and that the books reflect different emphases and styles, Ellingworth concludes that there is not enough evidence to suggest a common author. John Robinson provides another example where the intertextual relationship between 1 Peter and Hebrews is mentioned as a peripheral issue. In his discussion of dating and authorship of 1 Peter, Robinson writes that "[p]ossible connections with Ephesians, Hebrews, James and 1 Clement are (it is now widely agreed) too sketchy or too general for asserting literary dependence either way. In any case the arguments are circular, depending on judgments made of the dates of these other docu

ments."

³

Similarities between 1 Peter and Hebrews are also noted in studies of other NT topics. Barnabas Lindars, for instance, addresses the question of literary dependence in a study of the use of particular psalms in the NT writings. Having noted the common occurrences of Ps 109:1b LXX (110:1b English) in Heb 10:13 and allusions in Eph 1:22, Heb 2:

5–8

, and 1 Pet 3:22 (including conflation with Ps 8:7 LXX [8:6 English] in the three allusions), Lindars concludes, As literary dependence between the Paulines, Hebrews and 1 Peter can hardly be supposed, we must conclude that all three writers are drawing on the common stock of exegetical material.⁴ C. H. Dodd draws the same conclusion in his study of the use of Ps 109:1 LXX (110:1 English) throughout the NT. According to Dodd, "[i]t seems clear, therefore, that this particular verse was one of the fundamental texts of the kerygma, underlying almost all the various developments of it, and cited independently in Mark, Acts, Paul, Hebrews and 1 Peter."⁵ Other references to the intertextual relationship between 1 Peter and Hebrews are found in studies of the motif of imitatio Christi. For example, having claimed that 1 Peter is one of the most instructive NT writings for a study of the influence of the motif of the imitation of Christ on Christian spirituality, E. J. Tinsley asserts that [t]he author seems to have had in mind a similar picture to that of the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews.⁶ The mysterious relationship between 1 Peter and Hebrews also has made brief appearances in studies of early Christian rituals. For instance, in a discussion about the ritual of baptism in early Christianity, David Flusser claims that similar terms were used in 1 Peter and Hebrews because this formula was traditional.⁷ Apart from fragmented treatments such as these, there are very few studies of the literary parallels as a compi

led set.

Given the fragmented and secondary nature of how the intriguing parallels between 1 Peter and Hebrews generally have been treated, it is difficult to trace any trends in the history of scholarly opinion. There are, however, important works since the turn of the twentieth century which provide glimpses that might be indicative of the overall picture. The earliest work consulted for this project is a study concerning the authorship of Hebrews first published in 1899 by H. H. B. Ayles. Ayles concludes from the marked similarity between the two epistles that a literary connection is likely.⁸ However, assuming that this has no bearing on authorship, he does not pursue the question of who is most likely to have borrowed from whom. The following year, in a commentary on 1 Peter, J. Howard B. Masterman (1900) notes that the relation of our Epistle to the Epistle to the Hebrews constitutes a difficult and interesting literary problem.⁹ He suggests two possible explanations for the resemblances, the first of which is that one of the authors drew upon the work of the other. In that case, according to Masterman, Hebrews is more likely to be the prior document because the parallel material seems more characteristic of Hebrews than of 1 Peter.¹⁰ Masterman’s second explanation is that the two Epistles represent two stages of the more liberal Hellenistic Christian teaching, with Hebrews representing the evolutionary and 1 Peter the revolut

ionary.

¹¹

In another published work which evaluates the claims that have been made for authorship of Hebrews, James Moffatt (1911) notes that the resemblances between Hebrews and 1 Peter, which cover the thoughts no less than the style of both epistles, are not insignificant; but such correspondences should not be used to support the hypothesis that Peter actually wrote Hebrews. . . . At most they suggest a dependence of the one writing upon the other, possibly no more than a common milieu of Christian feeling.¹² Two decades later in a commentary on the epistle to the Hebrews, F. D. V. Narborough (1930) highlights the striking similarities between the texts of Hebrews and 1 Peter as evidence that Silvanus might be the author of Hebrews. Although concluding that such a hypothesis is too conjectural to be taken seriously, Narborough does allow for the possibility of a literary conn

ection.

¹³

In the same year that Narborough’s commentary was published, one of the rare focused studies of the similarities between 1 Peter and Hebrews appeared in a short essay written by T. E. S. Ferris (1930). Upon review of the parallel material, Ferris observes: (1) that ideas in P. are simply and briefly expressed, but in H. there is very great expansion with much original matter in the development; (2) that "the