Human Sexuality: Function, Dysfunction, Paraphilias, and Relationships

By Ami Rokach and Karishma Patel

Human sexuality touches us all, pun intended. We all either enjoy it, struggle with it, or may have been victims of it. Sexuality is not just about sex, but about human sexual function, the physiology of sex, the hormones involved and how they affect us, and the cultural norms related to it. Sexual function and dysfunction are closely tied to one’s self-esteem, self-respect, and to relationships with intimate partners. Human Sexuality: Function, Dysfunction, Paraphilias, and Relationships, explores the interplay of intimacy and sexuality; how it can enhance relationships, and how it can negatively affect them, or be affected by them. When individuals or partners encounter sexual problems or dysfunctions it can have a long-lasting affect both biologically and psychologically. Dr. Rokach explores the causes and the reasons that these dysfunctions are maintained, and successful treatment methods. Chapters on sexual offenses and paraphilias and what treatment options are available to sexual offenders are also included. This book is the first book to place sexuality where it belongs, within the context of relationships demonstrating how sexuality relates to intimacy by both enhancing and negatively affecting it.

• Explains psychological, biological and sociological theories of sexuality
• Addresses sexual dysfunctions according to various models of sex therapy
• Discusses the biological, developmental and sociological theories of sexual orientation
• Explores the specific hormones in male and female sexual behavior

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jan 22, 2021
• ISBN: 9780128191750

Ami Rokach

Ami Rokach, Ph.D. A clinical psychologist, a member of the psychology dept. at York university in Toronto, and a researcher who has researched and published extensively on loneliness, intimate partner violence, sexuality and sexual abuse, bullying and victimization, the homeless, drug abuse, and criminality. Ami worked at the Ontario Correctional Inst. for 28 years with ‘garden variety’ criminals, sex offenders, and violent, abusive and dangerous criminals, all – or most – of whom experienced ACEs, and continue to inflict it on their children. Additionally, in his private practice, Ami treats people who have undergone ACE and traumatic upheavals in their childhood.

Book preview

Human Sexuality

Function, Dysfunction, Paraphilias, and Relationships

First Edition

Ami Rokach, PhD

York University, Toronto, ON, Canada

Karishma Patel, MSc

University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Religion, culture, and the evolution of sexuality

Abstract

Religion’s view of sexuality

A brief cultural overview

Chapter 2: Research in human sexuality

Abstract

Sex research in North America: Historical attitudes and present explorations

What are the changes that have occurred since those days?

Recent sex research in the United States

Some examples of sex surveys

Longitudinal sex research

The stigma of sexual research

The implications of sex research to participants and researchers

Comparing research risk to the researcher’s everyday life

Doing sexuality research with children

Research on alcohol and sexuality: Issues and approaches

Qualitative sexual research

Chapter 3: Sexual response

Abstract

Male and female genitalia

Female genitals

Male genitals

Sexual response cycle

Chapter 4: Sexual behaviors

Abstract

Factors contributing to a fulfilling sexual relationship

Gender differences in sexual behavior

Sexuality and culture

Gender and sexual behavior

Solitary sexual behaviors

Myths about men’s sexuality and how it affects their behavior

Sexuality in later life

Human mating and sexual selection

Sexual fantasies and their function

Deviant sexual fantasy in nonoffending adult males

Sex in the 21st century

Hooking up

Sexting and sextortion

Chapter 5: Love and intimacy

Abstract

Longing to belong

Love, attraction, and intimate relationships

Philosophical view of the structure of love

The nature of love

What is passion?

Keeping sexual passion alive: How to

Postsex affection

The effect of the Internet on romantic relationships

Gender differences in love and relationships

When bliss is cracking

Marriage, divorce, and the immune system

Intimacy and heart disease

Creating a relatedness experience by designing living quarters

Chapter 6: Communication and sexuality

Abstract

Intimate communication

Sexual and relational communication

The function of sexual communication

Sexual and relational communication

Communicating about sex in the marriage

Sexual communication

Pain and the effect of communication

Sexual communication and sex toys parties

Chapter 7: Sexual orientation

Abstract

What is sexual orientation?

Asexuality

Characteristics of sexual orientation

Bisexuality

Homosexuality

Homosexuality in history

Neural correlates in sexual orientation

Sexual identity

Prevalence of nonheterosexual orientation

Sex difference and sexual orientation

Stigma related to sexual orientation: A historical perspective

Sexual fluidity

Are heterosexual and homosexual individuals recognized by their facial features?

Onset of sexual attraction

Sexual orientation and well-being

Sexual orientation cross-culturally

Antecedents of sexual orientation

Can sexual orientation be changed?

Mate preferences and sexual orientation

Chapter 8: The effect of psychological and medical conditions on sexuality

Abstract

Physical effects

Cancer

Sexuality and congenital disability

Sexuality and obesity

Mental health and psychological disorders

General medical conditions

Neurological problems

Other conditions affecting sexuality

Chapter 9: Sexual dysfunctions

Abstract

Introduction

Defining sexual disorders

Prevalence

In general, what causes sexual dysfunctions?

A closer examination of various sexual dysfunctions

Sexual dysfunctions in men and women and their causes

Sexual desire disorders

Orgasmic disorders

Pain-related sexual dysfunctions

Female sexual dysfunctions

The impact of life and relationship on female sexual functioning

Female orgasmic disorders

Sexual dysfunction and childhood sexual abuse

Men’s sexual dysfunctions

Diminished ejaculatory problems

Hypoactive sexual desire in men

Rapid ejaculation (PE)

Delayed ejaculation

Men’s sexual dysfunction and health

Sexuality of the aging man

Erectile dysfunction (ED) of the elderly: Diagnosis and treatment

Sexual dysfunctions and self-efficacy

The effect of the environment on sexual health of men and women

What affects our sexual health?

Helping couples deal with sexual problems

Chapter 10: Sexual offenders

Abstract

Paraphilias

Sex offenders

Factors maintaining sexual offending

Is there a difference between sex offender types?

Intimate relationships of sex offenders

Public attitudes toward sex offenders

Stigmatization of sex offenders

Child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) offenders

Recidivism of sex offenders

Chapter 11: Sexual variations

Abstract

Introduction to sex variations

Prevalence and variety of paraphilias

Frotteurism

Hypersexuality

Asexuality

Fetishism

Sadomasochism

Characteristics of the main paraphilias

Child sexual abuse

Exhibitionism

Voyeurism

Treatment options for paraphilic disorders

Psychological treatment for specific paraphilic disorders

Coerced sex

Sexual addiction

Internet sex, or cybersexual addiction

A therapist’s perspective on sexual addiction

Chapter 12: Sex therapy

Abstract

Great lovers

The goals of psychotherapy

Gathering sexual background from clients: How to

Managing therapist-client boundaries

Reversing sex side effects of medications

Evolution and revolution in sex therapy

History of treating sexual dysfunction

When love and sex go wrong

Sexual function and dysfunction: Psychological and relational factors

Issues in defining women’s sexual dysfunction

Confronting sexual trauma

Painful sex

An existential approach to sex therapy

Mindfulness-based sex therapy

Sexual addiction and child sexual abuse

Treatment for sexual dysfunction (SD) in multiple sclerosis (MS)

Efficacy of psychological interventions for sexual dysfunctions

The evolution and future of sex therapy

Chapter 13: Sexuality and relationships

Abstract

Sex and belonging

Choosing a sexual and intimate partner: Related issues

Relational concerns in establishing intimate relationships

Introduction to sexuality: Importance of sexuality

Intimacy and sexuality

Contributors to sexual satisfaction

Sexual activity and well-being

Sex and maintaining relational intimacy

The interplay of attachment style and sexuality

Communal sex motivation

Sexual intimacy and relational satisfaction

Treating relational and sexual dysfunctions

Other factors affecting sexual satisfaction

Sexual satisfaction and relationship happiness in midlife and older couples

Longitudinal associations of sexual and relationship satisfaction

Relational squeaking: Intimacy, loneliness, and sexual infidelity

Chapter 14: Epilogue

Index

Copyright

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Dedication

To my beloved Natalie

A.R.

To my loving and supportive family: Trupti, Bharat, and Shiv

K.P.

Preface

Traditionally within our culture, the topic of sexuality has been considered taboo and hidden from the public view (Yarber & Sayad, 2019). Societies all over the world for many centuries perceived sex, in the context of marriage, as penile-vaginal intercourse for the sole reason of procreation, with other forms of sexual stimulation being sinful and in some cultures a cause for incarceration (Lehmiller, 2018). Within more recent and modern times, the view of sex has been transformed and expanded, referring to a variety of behaviors including everything from mutual masturbation to oral, vaginal, and anal stimulation, not to mention things like sexting and phone sex (Lehmiller, 2018, p.63).

Herdt (2007) maintained that Americans are fixated on sex. This obsession is age-old and not unique to the United States, but the packaging is new—and it is causing harm. Contrary to what we may believe, we do not love sex. We are deeply ambivalent about sexual pleasure and intimacy. Parents are worried whether their teens are ‘doing it.’ Teachers of sexuality education avoid mentioning the ‘P’ word—that is, pleasure—because it inspires fear and near panic, even among parents (p. 17). Americans harbor concern about a variety of issues, from unintended pregnancy, through sexually active youth, gays and lesbians gaining the right to marry, to HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. Sexual literacy, contends Herdt (2007), is essential if we are to promote sexual wellness, meaning having healthy intimate relationships, understanding that sexuality is more than the sexual act, and being able to prevent disease and unwanted pregnancies. What is quite available to the public, and sometimes confused with genuine sexuality, is what Herdt refers to as packaged sex. And by that he means pornography, the images of sexy women in lingerie plastered on billboards, and TV innuendoes that sell anything with an eye to sexuality and seduction. He closes by declaring that as Americans we pride ourselves on our love of progress. But when it comes to sexuality, we are lagging behind (p. 18).

Lehmiller (2018) suggests that sexual acts are a result of numerous forces such as psychological factors, our genetics, how we have historically evolved, and the social and cultural factors within which we live. It is the influence of these factors that impacts our decision-making to engage in sexual behaviors and our understanding of human sexuality (Lehmiller, 2018). This book explores in great detail the factors relating to human sexuality, including sexual dysfunctions and treatment approaches.

The history of human sexuality reveals a preoccupation with the immortality of sex, suggested Bancroft (2009, p. 280). The Christian thinking has struggled, for ages, to accept sex as a normal activity and, holding negative attitudes about sexual expression, saw it as a necessary evil to make reproduction possible. Accordingly, it was seen as best contained within the marriage. The medical and psychological professions colluded with that approach to sexuality (Bancroft, 2005). The sexual revolution, the advent of The Pill, and the groundbreaking research of Kinsey and Masters and Johnson in the second half of the 20th century ushered in more liberal sex-positive attitudes, recognizing the importance of sexuality in establishing and maintaining relational intimacy, and of the complexity and incredible variability of sexual experience.

Sex is a significant part of human relationship. Specifically, two factors that have been identified as being pertinent in sexual satisfaction include the intimacy level in a relationship and the amount of time a couple has been together (Yarber & Sayad, 2019). Previous studies have demonstrated a positive association between one’s satisfaction within a relationship and frequency of sex (Brezsnyak & Whisman, 2004; Byers, 2005); however, it appears that having more sex does not equate to more satisfaction. Rather, having sex once a week is considered to be most ideal for well-being and happiness within a relationship (Muise & Impett, 2015). Sexual intimacy is one factor of many that drives a successful, happy relationship. As Ornish (1998) asserted, Our survival depends on the healing power of love, intimacy, and relationships (p. 1). To fulfill our need to belong, we desire to be in intimate relationships, seeking close human connections with others.

There are various ways of examining sex: soul-nourishing sex, sex not practiced by the majority of individuals, and sex that is considered to be harmful. Good, soul-nourishing sex may be characterized by factors such as intimacy, commitment, psychological comfort, and good communication. This book delves further into discussing the research describing such factors in greater detail. Moreover, it discusses the different types of nonharmful sex not practiced by the majority of individuals. This includes sexual behaviors considered to be abnormal by others, i.e., watching porn, having fetishes, etc. In addition, we explore more harmful behaviors of sex, including but not limited to pedophilia and sexual coercion and abuse, which lead to a variety of negative effects (Lehmiller, 2018).

This book begins with a review of the history of sexuality and how humanity has evolved in the way sexuality is perceived and an overview of the way sexuality has been approached in the 21st century. Clearly, sexuality, at least in the Western world, has gone through vast changes that have brought it from a backdoor activity not to be discussed or taught to the younger generation, to a more open, liberal, accepting, and publicly condoned topic of discussion at home, in schools, and on the street.

Following the overview of sexuality throughout history, we review the various methodologies used to conduct sex-related research in North America, from Kinsey’s survey questions, through Masters and Johnson’s sexual activity studies in their lab, where they observed and measured how the human body responds to sexual stimulation, to highlighting the importance of language being used by researchers when conducting qualitative (and quantitative) research.

We then examine the human sexual response, including the female and male genitals, the influences of the biological, psychological, and emotional factors on our sexual response, the theories of sexual responses from Masters and Johnson’s model, including Helen Singer Kaplan’s three-stage model of sexual response, and evolutionary theories as related to gender differences in experiences of sexual intercourse, sexual arousal, and sexual desire.

Sexual behaviors are examined in detail, including the factors that contribute to a fulfilling sexual relationship, recent data on gender differences in sexual behavior, the influential role culture plays on sexual behavior around the world, the different ways one achieves sexual enjoyment (e.g., using sexual toys and masturbation), and touching upon prevalent sexual dysfunctions commonly experienced among older adults. In addition, we explore in detail the human mating and sexual selection process in humans, the role of the good and bad sexual fantasies within relationships, and the shift in sex behaviors within the 21st century.

As we know, humans are social creatures and as such we yearn to belong. In this book we explore love, its relationship to intimacy, how love and intimacy have been defined in literature, the purpose of love, and the role of passion, postsex affection, and the effect of the internet on romantic relationships. Further, the gender differences in relationships and love are investigated, along with factors related to when and why relationships start to go south, resulting in relationship dissatisfaction.

In addition, we examine the differences between communication and sexual communication, including the impact sexual communication has on marital relationships and suggestions on how to improve sexual communication to enhance a couple’s relationship. Further, we explore sexual orientation, the environmental and cultural factors influencing our sexual orientation, and the differences between sexual orientation, identity, behavior, and preferences.

We also describe how sexuality is impacted by a variety of common and uncommon medical illnesses and psychological disorders, including a review of treatment of conditions. We explore the physical, psychological, and emotional impact these medical and mental health conditions may have on individuals and how they influence their relationship.

We take a deeper dive into paraphilias, sexual offending, how sexual offending has been viewed by the public, and the various treatment modalities to approach sexual offending, including the effectiveness of treatment for this population. In addition, we discuss more harmful sexual behaviors such as coerced sex and child sexual abuse. Lastly, we further explore the growing phenomenon of internet sex and cybersexual addiction.

We go on to examine the commonality of sexual dysfunctions, how sexual disorders have been defined, and the biological, psychological, and social factors that cause sexual dysfunctions. We discuss sexual dysfunctions experienced by men, women, and both genders, sexual desire disorders, orgasmic disorders, pain-related sexual dysfunctions, sexual dysfunctions related to childhood sexual abuse, the importance of using holistic assessments, and different treatment approaches to address issues related to sexual dysfunctions. Given the discussion of sexual dysfunctions among females and males, this book outlines the treatment of sexual dysfunctions, including the psychological, social, and medical approaches for treatment. In addition, we explore sexual dysfunctions among the older adult population. Lastly, we examine sex and belonging, the importance for intimacy and belonging, issues related to choosing a sexual and intimate partner, discussing the concerns associated with establishing intimate relationships, how couples keep intimate relationships, and how intimate and sexual relationships are satisfied.

This volume is not intended to be just one more book providing an introduction to human sexuality, as many others on the market are, aimed at [mainly] undergraduate students. Rather, we took a different approach. Instead of describing human sexuality, which has been repeatedly done by other authors, this book is a compilation of much that is not covered by other human sexuality books, examining various issues, concerns, angles, and points of view that may be of particular interest to academicians, mental health professionals, sex therapists, clinicians, and those who wish to have a look at less-covered topics. We describe and explain normal as well as abnormal sexual behaviors, aiming to examine them without the negative attitude and stigma that may be attached to them by the public and academicians alike.

References

Bancroft J. The endocrinology of sexual arousal. Journal of Endocrinology. 2005;186(3):411–427. doi:10.1677/joe.1.06233.

Bancroft J. Human sexuality and its problems. 3rd ed. Toronto, ON: Elsevier; 2009.

Brezsnyak M., Whisman M.A. Sexual desire and relationship functioning: The effects of marital satisfaction and power. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy. 2004;30:199–217.

Byers E.S. Relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction: A longitudinal study of individuals in long-term relationships. Journal of Sex Research. 2005;42:113–118.

Herdt G. What is sexual literacy, and why is it needed now?. In: Herdt G., Howe C., eds. 21st century sexualities: Contemporary issues in health, education, and rights. New York, NY: Routledge; 2007:17–19.

Lehmiller J.J. The psychology of human sexuality. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell; 2018.

Muise A., Impett E.A. Good, giving, and game: The relationship benefits of communal sexual motivation. Social Psychological and Personality Science. 2015;6(2):164–172.

Ornish D. Love and survival: The scientific basis for the healing power of intimacy. New York: Harper Collins; 1998.

Yarber W.L., Sayad B.W. Human sexuality: Diversity in contemporary society. 3rd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2019.

Acknowledgments

We wish to wholeheartedly thank Samir Boulazreg and Shauna Spirling, our devoted research assistants, for their constant and tireless help in preparing this manuscript.

A.R. and K.P.

Chapter 1: Religion, culture, and the evolution of sexuality

Abstract

This introductory chapter provides a brief overview of sexuality, its functions—in the animal and the human worlds—and how it is affected by culture, religion, and tradition. The chapter concludes with a review of sexuality in the 21st century, including the positive changes that have occurred as well as the dangers that these changes may pose.

Keywords

Religion; Culture; Evolution of sexuality; Hinduism; Islam; Buddhism; Judaism; Christianity

This introductory chapter provides a brief overview of sexuality, its functions—in the animal and the human worlds—and how it is affected by culture, religion, and tradition. The chapter concludes with a review of sexuality in the 21st century, including the positive changes that have occurred as well as the dangers that these changes may pose.

Religion’s view of sexuality

The religious foundation of the Judeo-Christian tradition of Western culture is the Hebrew Bible, or the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. The Hebrew Bible, which was based on ancient traditions and written between approximately 800 and 200 BCE, includes clear messages regarding sexuality and its place in human life and society. Sexuality is viewed in the Hebrew scriptures as fundamentally positive. The Genesis account of creation reports that God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them (Genesis 1:27). Human sexual differentiation is not an afterthought or an aberration; it is an integral part of creation, which God calls good. Judaism views sexuality as a gift given to humans, which should be utilized responsibly. Humans are commanded to procreate within marriage (Farley, 1994).

There are three main themes in the Hebrew scriptures regarding sexuality. First, sex is seen not as just another biological function but as an expression of a deep and intimate part of a relationship between two people. It is echoed by the story of Adam and Eve, which states that a man leaves his father and cleaves to his wife and the two become one flesh (Genesis 2:24). And to wit, the Hebrew language used in the Bible utilizes the verb to know to mean to engage in sexual intercourse (as in Adam knew Eve and she conceived a child). The word knowledge indicated deep intimacy and is used to describe the relationship between God and God’s people. The use of sexual imagery in describing both marital and divine-human relationships testifies to the positive view of the Hebrew Bible toward sex. Second, in the Hebrew scriptures, sexuality could never be separated from its social consequences. Israel began as a small group of nomadic tribes that struggled and fought to stay alive in the near-desert of the Arabian Peninsula. Survival demanded that they have many children, especially boys, so that they could grow up and become herdsmen and warriors. Since the tribes were small and close-knit, sex and other social functions and behaviors had to be regulated to prevent jealousy over sexual partners, which could have undermined the group’s cohesion. Consequently, and as can be expected, much of the Hebrew Bible is concerned with laws regarding people living together in society, and these laws often include the regulation of sexual practices. Finally, the Hebrew scriptures see sexual behavior as an aspect of national and religious loyalty. When the Israelites settled in what is now the state of Israel, about 1200 to 1000 BCE, they came into contact with the original inhabitants, whom they called Canaanites. The Canaanites prayed to the gods (fertility cult) to enhance the growth of their crops, and that was encouraged by ritual sex. Hebrew religious leaders saw in the fertility cult a threat to their religion, and thus they forbade certain sexual acts because they were found among the Canaanites and the leaders were concerned they might lead to infidelity to Israel’s God. The sexual regulations of the Hebrew Bible need to be seen both in the context of the times and against this historical background. Israel derived prohibitions against nakedness, cultic prostitution, and other such typically Canaanite practices. Both themes are present in this passage from Leviticus 20:10–19:

If a man commits adultery with his neighbor’s wife, both adulterer and adulteress shall be put to death. The man who has intercourse with his father’s wife has brought shame on his father. They shall both be put to death; their blood shall be on their own heads… A man who has intercourse with any beast shall be put to death... If a man takes his sister, his father’s daughter or his mother’s daughter, and they see one another naked, it is a scandalous disgrace. They shall be cut off in the presence of their people… If a man lies with a woman during her monthly period and brings shame upon her, he has exposed her discharge and she has uncovered the source of her discharge; they shall both be cut off from their people.

The menstrual taboo is typical of many societies. It should be noted that all societies have had laws regulating sex and that the Hebrew laws made sense in their historical context and were humane for the time. The Hebrew Scriptures highly regard married love, affection, and sexuality. And Song of Songs, part of the Hebrew Bible, is an enthusiastic celebration of sexual romance, with no reference to having children.

Christianity

Christianity grew in three centuries from an obscure Jewish sect to the dominant religion in the West, originating from the complex conditions of the Mediterranean world between 100 BCE and 100 CE, which was in ferment in the spheres of philosophy and religion. The notion in those days was characterized by dualism, which believed that body and spirit were opposed to each other and that the goal of life was to transcend the physical and material sides of life and become purely spiritual. Judaism was revulsed at the excesses of Roman life and had become markedly more dualistic and antisex by the time of the early Christian Church. Christianity (as well as Judaism) is distinctive among the major world religions in insisting on monogamy (Parrinder, 1996). The Christian standard of monogamy was a major step toward equality between women and men. Men were no longer permitted to have many wives as possessions. Similarly, Jesus opposed divorce, which again may seem strict. However, it was meant to oppose the then practiced approach that a man could divorce his wife simply at will, yet a wife had no similar power.

The Christian scriptures center around the Gospels, which describe the life and teachings of Jesus. Because Jesus said almost nothing on the subject of sex, it is difficult to understand what the sexual ethic of the Gospels is. Jesus, whose ethical teaching was based on that of the Hebrew prophets, urged his followers to strive for ethical perfection, and he spoke strongly against pride, hypocrisy, injustice, and the misuse of wealth (John 4:1–30, John 8:53–9:11, and Luke 7:36–50). No emphasis on sexual conduct was put forth by Jesus, who apparently regarded it as a part of a whole moral life. It was suggested that St. Paul held a surprisingly positive outlook on sex and struggled to reconcile the rampant sexual activities of the Gentiles with the more reverential attitude of the Jews (Countryman, 1994). Paul apparently anticipated our contemporary psychological understanding that human sexuality has profound interpersonal and spiritual implications (1 Corinthians 5–8). Paul did not even insist that sex belongs only in heterosexual marriages, which were not a regulated institution in those days. And when he refers to sexual practices as instances of impurity (Romans 1:24–27), he is viewing them as social taboos, not moral evils.

The sex negativity of the Christian tradition, therefore, is not rooted in the Bible, but in the philosophies, especially Stoicism and Neoplatonism, that shaped early Christianity (Boswell, 1980). As the Church became the official religion of the Roman Empire, much of its original fervor was lost and it began to grow corrupt and worldly. Devoted Christians revolted against this situation by moving to the desert to become monks and hermits, to fast, to pray, and to practice all sorts of self-denial, including celibacy. And from the 12th century, it was instituted that all clergy in the West be celibate, a departure from early Church practice (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).

Protestantism, which arose in the 16th century, shook the theological foundations of the Catholic Church, though the changes regarding sexual ethics were minor. The Protestant churches did not require clerical celibacy and placed a higher value on marriage and family life, only within which was sex acceptable. A significant contribution of Reformation Protestantism to Christianity was an emphasis on the individual conscience in matters such as the interpretation of the Bible and ethical decision-making. The Reformation, led by Martin Luther, also gave rise to Puritanism, which led to the use of civil law to try to regulate human behavior in an attempt to suppress immorality. What we often think of as Puritan is probably more properly referred to as Victorian. Queen Victoria reigned in England for about 60 years (1839–1901), and she held sexual expression in exaggerated disgust and probably overemphasized its importance. While publicly strict standards of decency and purity were enforced, many people still indulged in private vices of pornography and prostitution. The 20th century revolt seems to have been initiated as a response to the Victorian era (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).

Islam

Geographically, and in terms of its roots, Islam is the closest faith to the Judeo-Christian heritage. It was founded by the Prophet Muhammad, who lived in what is now Saudi Arabia from 570 to 632 CE. Apparently, classical Islam viewed sexuality very positively, and thus intercourse in marriage was seen as the highest good of human life. Islam sanctions both polygyny and concubinage, and Muhammad himself had several wives. Sex outside marriage (concubinage) is viewed as a sin. That led to a double standard in this male-dominated faith, where men’s extramarital affairs were tolerated. An adulterous wife, however, could be the object of an honor killing in which she is murdered for her transgression (Boonstra, 2001; Ilkkaracan, 2001). In Iran, as one country among other theocracies in which religious law is enacted in civil law, sexual offenses are likely to be more stringently punished, and women have less freedom. Egypt and Syria are secular states in which Western values have been adopted to some extent. Consequently, women there have more rights, and sexual mores are more pluralistic (Ahmadi, 2003). Contraception is not only permitted but encouraged by Islamic law (Boonstra, 2001; Maguire, 2001). Even the strict state of Iran today has an extensive family planning program, and 73% of married women use contraceptives.

Hinduism

Hinduism refers, in general, to a complex of mythology and religious practice founded on the Indian subcontinent. Here we can see virtually every approach to sexuality that humans have yet invented. In Hinduism, there are four possible approaches to life: Kama, the pursuit of pleasure; Artha, the pursuit of success and material wealth; Dharma, the pursuit of the moral life; and Moksha, the pursuit of liberation through the negation of the self in a state known as nirvana. Kama is notable as it was the origin of the Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, a masterpiece of erotic hedonism and pleasure. It serves as a testament to the highly positive view of sexuality to be found in Hinduism. In contrast, Dharma and Moksha, which direct the believers to avoid all passions, including sex, require of their followers to pass out of the cycle of continual rebirth to absorption into the godhead. This discipline includes brahmacharya, or celibacy (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).

Buddhism

Buddhism originated out of Hinduism, following the philosophy of Gautama (560–480 BCE), the Buddha. There is little discussion of sex in the teachings of the Buddha; his way concentrates on the achievement of enlightenment and on escape from the suffering of the world. Two main traditions, Theravada and Mahayana, differ greatly. The ethics of Theravada include the strict avoidance of any desires that bring joy; understanding, morals, and discipline are emphasized. Mahayana, on the other hand, emphasizes love of others. Both encourage men to live celibate lives as monks. Originally, Buddha famously sought the middle way of moderation between extreme asceticism and extreme hedonism (Maguire, 2001). Today, most believers live ordinary, meaning married, lives while the monks cultivate ascetic wisdom. Tantric Buddhism, found particularly in Tibet and India, teaches that sexual union epitomizes the essential unity of all things by the joining of female energy (shakti) and male energy (shiva) (Lorius, 1999). Sexual expression is promoted as possibly leading to spiritual enlightenment (Parrinder, 1980).

A brief cultural overview

While in the two centuries that preceded the 1950s all regions of the world were drawn into tighter economic and political relations, global economic dislocations became widespread in the mid-1900s. Economic change and imperialism had a major impact on sexual behaviors and values. During this period, Western claims of superiority were at their height, and their judgments about other societies’ sexuality and sexual norms played an important role and were central to this process. While substantial regional differences persisted in the Western world, based on previous cultural standards, some genuine global trends can be identified. The most salient theme was Western evaluations of sexual practices in other societies, which affected sexual values and practices of Europeans who, like the Americans, had started to consume pornography and were facing a rising promiscuity. However, on the other hand, missionaries, mainly from Europe, became more visible and vocal, and the result was a sense of dismay and shock at the current sexual standards, and the moralistic tone that those missionaries aimed to popularize. European imperialism and colonialism resulted in European men and then families migrating to the countries that they ruled. And so, with Victorian assumptions, and their demeaning beliefs about Asian and African sexual immorality, they asserted that something had to be done to keep the lust and lure of native women in check, so they did not lead European men astray. Increased openness and promiscuity, increased prostitution, sexual violence toward women, and increased and unprecedented levels of venereal disease affected virtually every part of the world, and thus there was a push to bring societies more in line with European morality. By the early 20th century, leaders in various regions of the world tried to reconcile the contradictory trends, hoping to stem the tide of sexual freedom, and by doing so gain some control of venereal diseases. However, it proved to be all but impossible to put the genie back in the bottle. In Africa, and particularly in Kenya (but not only there), women were forced to undergo circumcision, as a way to curb their sexual pleasure and therefore sexual appetite. This cruel technique is still practiced in various African Muslim countries, like Somalia, Sudan, Ghana, Nigeria, and Ethiopia, for instance. And despite colonies gaining their independence in the mid-20th century, nationalist leaders shared concerns about the damaging effects of disease and the more open sexuality and increased prostitution, which they saw as moral dangers.

Let’s examine, in general, how China and the Middle East handled the surge in sexuality. Many Westerners loudly lamented the effeminacy of Chinese men, seen by them as too indulgent in pursuit of sexual pleasures but also as unkind to women. There was less criticism of Chinese women, mainly because they were sheltered and did not come in contact with Westerners. The Chinese women were perceived as excessively docile and controlled by the culture that dictated foot binding. Any relationship between white men and Chinese women was, naturally, criticized. Marital ages in China remained far below those practiced in the West, with men marrying at 21 and women at 17. Arranged marriages in China were the standard, though as the 20th century wore on, the younger generation raised objections to that practice. Infanticide remained a leading form of birth control, with many more girls being killed than boys, so much so that in some regions gender ratios became badly distorted.

The Muslim culture in the Middle East tolerated homosexuality much more than the Western world did, and consequently drew authors such as Oscar Wilde and T. E. Lawrence, who traveled to experience and write about that sexual freedom. Polygamy was practiced and persisted, and abortion and birth control were condoned by the Muslim culture. While the Sharia sanctioned coitus interruptus, it also allowed other methods of birth control. Sexual slavery did decline, but the treatment of women remained as between a master and a servant, including sexual use and abuse.

Latin America

Most of Latin America is Catholic, and the Catholic Church emphasized marital sex and reproduction. Despite that, violence and exploitation of women were evident in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. However, the gulf between the Church’s rules and people’s behaviors created a situation where out-of-wedlock sex, rape, and exploitation of women persisted. Artificial contraception was either illegal or disapproved of, and women who insisted on having abortions were jailed in Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay. Most legal systems made divorce difficult, as marriage was perceived to help control male sexual impulses.

Russia and Japan

Russia and Japan experienced the Industrial Revolution sometime after the West, and with it came dislocation and increased prostitution, which the West had already experienced to a large degree. Something akin to a sexual revolution occurred in both countries—mainly in Russia—along lines that were similar to what occurred in the West. While Japan has attempted to institute directives for more honorable sexual behavior to adjust to Western standards, Russia was much less concerned with it, and its standards were not similar to those in the West. In both Russia and Japan, similar reactions to sexual change reflected those that occurred in the Victorian West, as a reaction to a perceived disruption of older standards.

Russia

The peasants, which formed most of the Russian population in the 19th century, were influenced by the Orthodox Christian morality and by the finite land that was at their disposal, and thus the peasants attempted to regulate premarital sex. While strong emphasis was put on female virginity, the wish and need for premarital sex resulted in a greater tolerance of early-age marriages. When greater urbanization occurred, the peasant population was reduced and that affected sexual standards. Premarital sex increased, as happened in the West and in Europe, and with it the rates of illegitimacy resulting from extramarital sex. Boys were taken to be initiated into sexuality to the brothels that sprung up all around the country, and venereal diseases were rampant, as was homosexuality. With all that, a full Victorian mood did not take hold, since sexuality was so openly and diversely discussed. Sexually explicit advertisements appeared, pornography spread, and reformers urged that abortion should be decriminalized. Fascination with sexual violence and homosexuality became part of that cultural current. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, the laws were significantly relaxed. Abortions, homosexual activities, and divorce were decriminalized and consequently proliferated. Sexual pleasure became a sought-after activity, and adultery increased, with participants seeing it as resulting from their dissatisfaction with marital sex. As the communists established their grip on Russia, concern was expressed about the rising rate of venereal diseases, abortions, and divorces, although actual popular attitudes were not changed significantly, as was implied. Many Russians remained deeply anxious about masturbation, homosexuality, and extramarital sex. As Stalin rose to power, communism began to endorse a Victorian approach to sexuality. Sexual education in schools was deeply influenced by Victorian values, which influenced the political system that spoke against eroticism and sexuality, attacked pornography, made divorce laws much more complex, and instilled the understanding that talking openly about sexuality was taboo. Experts recommended sexual sublimation and control as a key to productivity, creativity, and socialist solidarity. However, despite the communist leaders comparing their pure society to the decadent West, abortion, divorces, extramarital sex, and prostitution continued to flourish, though not officially recognized or reported (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).

Japan

One of the more salient things that the West knows about Japan are geisha houses, which, unlike what the Westerners assume, are not brothels, although the women there are trained to satisfy men’s wishes and erotic needs, but not to engage in sexual acts. As the Western world began to criticize Japan’s sexual tolerance and condoning of homosexuality, the Japanese official response was swift. Regulation of geisha houses stiffened, and traditional erotic art was banned. Homosexual intercourse was declared illegal, and official and public attitudes toward homosexuality expressed hostility. Emphasis on family morality was directed particularly toward women, who were urged to remain faithful to their husbands and direct their sexual interests toward childbearing and rearing. However, discussion of sexual issues was open and public, and art and literature displayed considerable interest in sexual themes.

As Japan became industrialized, there was a growing interest in sexual pleasure on the part of the growing city population, mainly the male’s pleasure. Divorce rates were steeply rising, reflecting men’s dissatisfaction with their relationships and sex at home. Sexually suggestive fashions spread among the women, as happened in the West. Larger pleasure zones grew up in cities, including dance halls and prostitution. As dislocations, which followed urbanization, left many women unprotected, they were abducted and forced into prostitution, in China or other parts of Asia. Later, Japan reversed its stern view of prostitution and utilized comfort women, initially Korean and then Japanese, who were employed in entertaining the Japanese soldiers who fought in Korea, and later the Allied soldiers there. Here, just as in Russia, the official standards and suggested behavior did not coincide with the general public and its sexual preferences and habits.

Sexual behaviors

Humans are a cultural species and, as such, their behavior, particularly sexual, is significantly influenced by the culture that they are part of (Heine & Norenzayan, 2006). Culture, according to anthropologists, refers to traditional (that is, passed down from generation to generation) ideas and values transmitted to members of the group from one generation to another, mainly via language, and that serve as the basis for patterns of behavior observed in the group (Frayser, 2004). Most of us in the Western hemisphere tend to view sexuality as if it were identical all over the world, which is referred to as ethnocentrism. However, as stands to reason, there are wide variations in sexual behavior, preferences, and values among cultures, and we will examine some of the more interesting ones.

Cross-cultural studies indicate that all societies regulate sexual behavior in some way, though the exact regulations vary greatly from one culture to the next (DeLamater, 1987). Some prohibitions transcend culture, such as sex between blood relatives, incest, as well as rape or forced sexual relations, which are taboos universally (Gregersen, 1996).

Sexual techniques

Kissing is one of the most common sexual techniques in our culture, as well as in most other cultures (Gregersen, 1996). However, that is not so in all societies. When the Thonga of Africa first saw Europeans kissing, they laughed and said, Look at them; they eat each other’s saliva and dirt (in Hyde & DeLamater, 2017, p. 8). There is also some variation in techniques of kissing. Cunnilingus (mouth stimulation of the female genitals) is fairly common in our society, and it occurs in a few other societies as well, especially in the South Pacific. However, on the island of Ponape the man places a fish in the woman’s vulva and then gradually licks it out prior to coitus (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). In some societies, inflicting pain on one’s partner is part of the sexual technique. The Apinaye woman of the Brazilian highlands may bite off bits of her partner’s eyebrows, noisily spitting them aside. Ponapean men are known to tug at the woman’s eyebrows, occasionally yanking large pieces of hair. People, both men and women, of some societies bite their partners to the point of drawing blood and even leaving scars (Frayser, 1985).

The frequency of intercourse for married couples varies considerably from one culture to the next. The lowest frequency seems to be among the Irish natives of Inis Beag, who engage in intercourse perhaps only once or twice a month. At the opposite extreme, the Mangaians have intercourse several times a night, at least among the young who can still perform at that frequency. The Santals of southern Asia copulate, at least in the early days of their marriage, as often as five times per day every day (Gregersen, 1996). Recent surveys of US sexuality indicate that frequency of intercourse in the United States is about in the middle compared with other societies (Herbenick et al., 2010a, 2010b, 2010c).

Sexuality in different societies

Inis Beag is a small island off the coast of Ireland (the name is fictitious) studied in the 1950s and 1960s by anthropologist John Messenger. At the time it was likely one of the most naive and sexually repressive societies in the world. The people of Inis Beag seemed to be completely unaware of such practices as French kissing, mouth stimulation of the breast, masturbating the partner’s penis, oral sex, or homosexuality. Sex education was virtually nonexistent, as parents did not seem to be able to bring themselves to discuss such embarrassing matters with their children. Menstruation and menopause were very frightening to the island’s women, as they had no idea why these physiological changes happen, and it was commonly believed that menopause can produce insanity. Men on this island believed that intercourse was hard on one’s health, and consequently did not engage in sex the night before they were to do a job that took great energy. They did not approach women sexually during menstruation, as a woman was considered dangerous to the man at these times. Apparently, these islanders abhorred nudity, and consequently only babies were allowed to bathe while nude. Adults washed only the parts of their bodies that extended beyond their clothing—face, neck, lower arms, hands, lower legs, and feet. Premarital sex was essentially unknown, and when the couple did have sex after marriage, foreplay was generally limited to kissing and rough fondling of the buttocks. The husband invariably initiated the activity. The male-on-top (missionary) was the only position used, and both partners kept their underwear on during the activity. The man fell asleep immediately following orgasm, while the woman’s orgasm did not exist and was considered to be deviant.

In distinct contrast to Inis Beag was Mangaia, an island in the South Pacific. Based on the studies of anthropologist Donald S. Marshall in the 1950s, sex—for pleasure and for procreation—was a principal interest on the island. The Mangaian boy started to masturbate at the age of 8, after first hearing of masturbation when he was about 7 years old. When he was 13 years old, he went through what appears to be a rite of passage referred to as the superincision ritual (in which a slit was made on the top of the penis, along its entire length). This ritual initiated him into manhood. However, interestingly, the expert who performed the superincision gave him sexual instruction about how to perform oral sex on a woman, how to kiss and suck breasts, and how to bring his partner to orgasm several times before he had his own. Two weeks following the operation, when the incision had healed, the boy had intercourse with an experienced woman. She provided him with practice in various acts and positions and trained him to hold back until he could have simultaneous orgasms with his partner. Following that, the Mangaian boy actively sought out girls, or they sought him out, and they had coitus every night. The girl, who had received sexual instruction from an older woman, expected demonstration of the boy’s virility as proof of his desire for her. A partner who did not move during sex was despised. At around age 18, the Mangaians typically had sex most nights of the week, with about three orgasms per night. All women in Mangaia apparently learned to have orgasms, and the man was seen as responsible to help the woman reach it (Marshall, 1971; Messenger, 1993).

If we look at sexuality in China, the first 4000 years of recorded Chinese history were characterized by open, positive attitudes about human sexuality; the erotic literature that was produced attests to this, as the oldest sex manuals in the world come from China, dating from approximately 200 BCE. Sadly, the most recent 1000 years, however, have been just the opposite, and are characterized by repression of sexuality and censorship. A major philosophical concept in Chinese culture, yin and yang, originated around 300 BCE. According to the yin-yang philosophy, all objects and events are the products of two elements, yin and yang. Yin is associated with the female, and yang with the male. For several thousand years, the Chinese have used yin (a negative, passive, weak, and destructive element) and yang (the positive, active, strong, and constructive element) in words dealing with sexuality. This philosophy holds that the harmonious interaction between the male and female principles is vital, creating positive cultural attitudes toward sexuality. Of the three major religions of China, Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, Taoism advocates the cultivation of sexual techniques for the benefit of the individual. In 1422 there was a ban on erotic literature, and a second major ban occurred in 1664. A person found printing a banned book could be beaten and exiled. The communist government that founded the People’s Republic of China in 1949 imposed a strict ban on all sexually explicit materials. This worked up to the 1960s, after which there was increased openness to the West and its openness toward sexuality, and so X-rated videotapes began to be smuggled into China from Hong Kong and other countries. The government reacted harshly, promulgating a new antipornography law in 1985 (Ruan, 1991). The Golden Age of male homosexuality was expressed in historical writings in China as early as 2000 years ago. However, the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949 led to severe repression of homosexuality. In the early 1980s in puritan China, it was considered scandalous for a married couple to hold hands in public. Prostitution, premarital sex, homosexuality, and variant sexual behaviors were all illegal, and the laws were enforced. A moderate sexual liberation began in the 1980s and continues today, sparked in part by increased access to sexual media. Open displays of affection, such as holding hands in public, are now tolerated, and sex education is included in high school curricula. It appears, though, that the liberalizing trends are occurring mainly in the larger cities, whereas the majority of Chinese live in more rural areas that are still extremely conservative (Evans, 1995; Jeffreys, 2006; Laumann & Parish, 2004; Parish et al., 2007; Ruan & Lau, 1998; Zhang, Parish, Huang, & Pan, 2012).

Masturbation

Attitudes toward masturbation vary widely across cultures. Some societies tolerate or even encourage masturbation during childhood and adolescence, whereas others condemn the practice at any age. Some disapproval of adult masturbation can be found in almost any society (Gregersen, 1996). However, many adults universally appear to practice it. Female masturbation is also observed in all societies. The African Azande woman uses a phallus made of a wooden root; however, if caught by her husband during the act, she may suffer severe beatings for what she has done. The Lesu of the South Pacific, one of the few societies that express no disapproval of adult female masturbation, condone masturbation by women even in the presence of others, especially if the others are having sex and the woman is consequently aroused (Powdermaker, 1933).

Premarital and extramarital sex

Societies differ considerably in their rules regarding premarital sex (Frayser, 1985). The Marquesans of eastern Polynesia are probably at one extreme, as its boys and girls participate in a wide range of sexual experiences before puberty. Their first heterosexual intercourse occurs in their thirties, since prior to that they may experience homosexual sexual encounters. Mothers are proud if their daughters have many lovers prior to getting married. In contrast are the Egyptians of Siwa, who are very oppressive. In this culture a girl’s clitoris is removed at age 7 or 8 in order to decrease her potential for sexual excitement and intercourse. Premarital intercourse is not tolerated. Girls are married around the age of 12, so any temptations for premarital sex are almost eliminated. In general, these two cultures are fairly typical of their regions. According to one study, 90% of Pacific Island societies permit premarital sex, as do 88% of African and 82% of Eurasian societies. On the other hand, 73% of Mediterranean societies prohibit premarital sex. Generally, extramarital sex is second only to incest in the universal taboo applied to it (Frayser, 1985).

Homosexual sex

A wide range of attitudes toward same-gender sexual expression exists in various cultures (Murray, 2000). At one extreme are those societies that vehemently oppose such sexual behavior. In contrast, some societies tolerate the behavior for children but disapprove of it in adults. Some other societies, as part of puberty rites, encourage homosexual behavior (Herdt, 1984). Even in Europe, attitudes toward homosexuality vary widely (Lottes & Alkula, 2011). For example, people in Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Italy, and Spain have the most positive attitudes. In Belarus, Bulgaria, Estonia, and Russia, attitudes are more negative, though the most negative attitudes toward homosexuality can be found in Croatia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, and Ukraine (Ford & Beach, 1951; Murray, 2000; Whitam, 1983).

Disease

The increase in sexual promiscuity readily contributed to the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, enhancing trends that were present, especially in the 19th century. Sexual herpes spread in the 1980s in the United States, but the big news was the emergence of AIDS, which despite medication still cannot be cured or prevented except through abstinence. Death comes after a period of wasting and painful symptoms. Being so easily transmitted, through exchange of human fluids, AIDS significantly affected human sexual behaviors, sex tours, homosexuality, and drug use aided by reused needles. The Western world experienced a panic from the news about AIDS in the 1980s, which, looking back, was out of proportion. Several characteristic responses occurred: leaders, religious ones prominent among them, urged a rethinking of certain sexual practices, to roll back the sexual revolution and homosexuality in the interest of health. The use of condoms, which restricted fluid exchange, took hold, while scientific research mushroomed in an attempt to address the growing spread of AIDS. Massive government monies were directed to AIDS research. Additionally, foreigners in some areas were indicted for promiscuity, homosexuals became a common target, and the poor were focused on as well. AIDS, thus, exacerbated social tensions. Americans criticized the African Americans, while the Indians attacked the Nepalese. The year 1995 saw the introduction of antiretroviral medications that did not prevent or cure AIDS but were effective in preventing HIV from turning into the fatal AIDS. In poorer countries, where people could not afford the expensive treatment, the spread of AIDS grew and, in some areas, infected mothers gave birth to infected babies. Africa, Russia, and China were slow to react, and prostitutes carried the disease to their customers. By the early 21st century, more than 20 million people worldwide were infected by the disease. The success in the West of developing medications, along with increased condom usage, resulted in sexual activity returning to the level that existed prior to the scare of AIDS. Commitment to sexual expression and pleasures remained constant despite the obstacles that diseases posed.

Sex and violence

Sex and violence are not new companions. In many societies it is believed that the man rules, he can do and get whatever he wants, and may use violence if the woman is not cooperative. While it may not be possible to compare present rates of violence to those in the past, it is safe to say that they have increased, and surely reporting is on the rise. Several factors could account for that increase. As the new culture of sexuality promoted the approach that anything goes, it included violence toward women as well. In 2008 in Cairo, Egypt, women dressed in traditional clothing were subjected to increased harassment by men who wanted to know how they looked underneath all those clothes. And although the purpose of the concealing garb was to protect women from men’s gaze, in the culture of anything goes it did the opposite. Men also became intimidated seeing modern women becoming more independent and decided that violence would help keep them in line. In Pakistan honor killing of those women who wore Western dresses or who advocated less traditional sexual constraints was carried out by family members, who then suffered very minimal punishment, if any. Attacks on prostitutes became more frequent in many regions, and so did rape of women in general. Rape within the marriage also increased, with men demanding that women make themselves available sexually whenever the men desired. In India, for example, rape was not only used to make the women more submissive, but also as a way to protest educational and job gains. In the beginning of the 21st century, between 6% and 59% of Indian women, depending on the region, were raped by a husband or an intimate partner. Rape was particularly rampant during war time, such as in Rwanda in 2001 and in Haiti, predicated on the belief that raping the women of a different ethnicity would dishonor their group and defile the women’s ethnic purity. As a result, international organizations started to act to prevent such atrocities, and in the 1990s they succeeded in mobilizing an international agreement that rape during war was now to be considered a war crime. However, a 2006 United Nations report noted the persistent problem of violence against women.

Change in this area is occurring, but painfully slowly. Sexual violence occurs not only in other places but in the United States as well. Women have become more empowered to report violations and cast aside the traditional shame that women have suffered as a result. The #MeToo campaign, which was started in 2017, focused attention on the need to treat women respectfully, to honor their wishes when refusing any sexual contact, and not to engage in sexualized communication without the woman’s consent. Greater accountability and enforcement are now the rule rather than the exception. Additionally, clerics and traditionalists became very concerned about the newfound sexual freedom and all over the globe have attempted to influence youth to refrain from premarital sex and men not to stray from their marriages. In the United States, sex with children increased and sexual abuses by the public and by priests were widely reported. New legal regulations and guidelines were created in order to stave off the increase in violence and exploitation of women. For example, more precise definitions of date rape were introduced. Notably, agreeing to have sex and then backing out midway were considered as sexual harassment. This introduced restraints on men, who in many situations worked in close association with women wearing provocative clothing, in a highly sexualized culture. Nevertheless, the effort to define new sexual boundaries is a complex goal in a world tasting a different sexuality than ever before.

The evolution of sexual reproduction

In the southwestern deserts of the United States lives a species of whiptail lizards that have given up on sexual reproduction, since they reproduce clones of themselves, females reproducing females and males reproducing males. On their quest to reproduce, females must go through the mating motions with other females, including mounting and pseudocopulation, in order to facilitate the cloning process and egg development. In a scorching desert terrain where finding a male mate is close to impossible, and where even if found it may be difficult if not almost impossible to copulate and survive, cloning seems to be an adaptable action (Roughgarden, 2004). However, in general, sexual reproduction is the norm for plants and animals, including humans. And if it is the norm, then sex must offer advantages that outweigh the costs. Sexual reproduction extends back at least a billion years. One of the benefits related to sexual reproduction is that harmful gene mutations can be weeded out, since offspring may or may not have those mutated or damaged genes (Geary, 2010). Another benefit is enabling the shuffling of the genetic deck and creating novel combinations that may prove beneficial for survival (Rice, 2000). Additionally, sexual reproduction enables the creation of an adaptive immune system, which may be beneficial when the organism is challenged by an unpredictable pathogen (Zuk, 2007).

Sexual differences

If the adaptive cost-benefit ratio favors sexual reproduction, how does it lead to distinctly different sexes, i.e., males and females? Based on Bateman’s (1948) classic experiments with fruit flies, it was suggested that females invest much more in their eggs than males in their sperm, and while all males need is access to females in order to reproduce, females need in addition to mating also food and a hospitable environment. Usually males compete to gain the female’s favor and copulate, but with more females than males, females compete among themselves over males when there are not enough