The Concept of Divine Sovereignty in Micah: A Vision for the Fulfillment of the Abrahamic Promises

By Colin Semwayo

We live in a world gone awry. Social injustice pervades our societies, the poor are disdained, despotic leaders and nations seem to control world events, and racism and hatred abound. Yet, while it might appear that evil reigns, the sovereign God is in control.
Such is the message of the book of Micah, a text that underscores God’s presence in the world, righting wrongs, delivering the marginalized, and restoring the intended order of creation. In this careful explication of the minor prophet, Dr Semwayo challenges those who would question the text’s unity, revealing Micah as a powerful theological reflection on the reestablishment of Yahweh’s sovereignty on earth. Connecting the Zion/Davidic traditions to the Abrahamic covenant, Semwayo articulates a vision of hope that is as relevant for us in the twenty-first century as it was for Micah’s original audience.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Langham Monographs
• Release date: Dec 14, 2019
• ISBN: 9781783687695

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Interpreters have struggled to discern literary-theological unity in the book of Micah, leading some to deny it exists. Colin Semwayo rightly challenges such scepticism. He argues that the central theological theme of Micah is the reestablishment of Yahweh’s sovereignty in the face of the covenant community’s rebellion. Yahweh accomplishes this through the restoration of Zion and the Davidic dynasty. In the process Yahweh fulfills his promises to Abraham. Semwayo’s most valuable contribution to our understanding of Micah is showing how the Zion/Davidic and Abrahamic promises intersect.

Robert B. Chisholm, Jr, ThD

Chair and Senior Professor of Old Testament Studies,

Dallas Theological Seminary, Dallas, Texas, USA

In this scholarly exegesis of the book of Micah, the reader is guided step by step through a careful analysis to the conclusion. There is a sense of honesty in the use of the evidence which gives the reader a glimpse of scholarship at its best, and there is much here which will be of value to both the layperson and academic in their studies of the minor prophets.

William Domeris, PhD

Senior Academic in Biblical Studies,

South African Theological Seminary, Bryanston, South Africa

Biblical theology is a well-worn subject area, and the study of the theology of Micah is no exception in this regard. But Dr Semwayo brings a fresh voice to the conversation. Methodologically, he applies relevance theory, a linguistic model of communication that has been underutilized in biblical studies. This validates his search for intertextual allusions that are necessary to link various motifs in Micah and unify the theme of divine sovereignty with the Zion traditions and the Abrahamic covenant. Semwayo’s discussion of covenants is also refreshing, being informed by recent developments in our understanding of ancient Near Eastern covenants and the Old Testament. On the whole, this is biblical theology at its best.

John W. Hilber, PhD

Professor of Old Testament,

Grand Rapids Theological Seminary, Grand Rapids, Michigan, USA

This biblical-theological study examines the thematic coherence of the book of Micah in relation to the theme of divine sovereignty, specifically with regard to the Lord’s action on and for Mt Zion in fulfilment of the Abrahamic promise. It argues that the vision of the Lord’s rule on Zion, through the Davidic king, unto the blessing of all creation, is the means by which Micah uses Zion/David themes to apply the Abrahamic promise to his own generation and stands as the theme uniting the apparently disparate texts making up his book. The discussion ranges over divine sovereignty in the ancient Near East and the Old Testament and previous scholarship on Micah’s unity or perceived lack thereof (ch. 1); scholarly understanding of covenants, arguing for varying dimensions of symmetry and asymmetry in promise and obligation as the best model for relating and distinguishing them (ch. 2); and Zion traditions and motifs of divine combat (ch. 3). The thesis is then cogently applied to the book of Micah in three final chapters.

The level of scholarship is high and the dissertation successfully challenges previous studies which regard Micah’s oracles as only superficially connected and/or reject the authenticity of Micah 6–7. The author’s examination of divine sovereignty as expressed in the Zion traditions cogently demonstrate the conceptual coherence and structure of the book of Micah.

Eric Ortland, PhD

Lecturer in Old Testament and Biblical Hebrew,

Oak Hill College, London, UK

The Concept of Divine Sovereignty in Micah

A Vision for the Fulfillment of the Abrahamic Promises

Colin Semwayo

© 2019 Colin Semwayo

Published 2019 by Langham Monographs

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Contents

Cover

Acknowledgements

Abstract

Abbreviations

Chapter 1 Introduction

Need for This Study

Concept of Divine Sovereignty

Purpose and Thesis Statement

The Method of the Study

Outline of the Investigation

Chapter 2 Covenant Concept: A Theological Context for Micah

Introduction

Approaches to Biblical Covenants

Summary

Chapter 3 Zion/Davidic Traditions: A Framework for Micah

Introduction

Approaches to Zion/Davidic Traditions

Analyzing Traditions in Micah

Chapter 4 Divine Sovereignty and Mount Zion (Micah 1:2–4:8)

Introduction

Overview of Micah 1:2–4:8

Transformation of Zion

Significance of Divine Sovereignty in Zion

Chapter 5 Divine Sovereignty and the Davidic King (Micah 4:9–5:14)

Introduction

Overview of Micah 4:9–5:14

Transformation of Davidic Kingship

Significance of Davidic Kingship

Chapter 6 Divine Sovereignty and the New People of God (Micah 6:1–7:20)

Introduction

Overview of Micah 6:1–7:20

Transformation of the New People of God

Conclusion

Chapter 7 Covenantal Implications of Divine Sovereignty in Micah

Introduction

Zion/Davidic Traditions and the Abrahamic Traditions

Restoration of the Abrahamic Promises

Conclusion

Appendix Origins of the Zion/Davidic Traditions

Introduction

The Jebusite Theory

The Shiloh Ark Theory

The Davidic Court Theory

Bibliography

About Langham Partnership

Endnotes

Acknowledgements

To God be the glory in Christ Jesus! The long process of writing this dissertation has been a rewarding experience thanks to the numerous people who have each contributed in so many ways. As I reflect on the experience, I am reminded that such a project is a community endeavor. I acknowledge the impact the wider scholarly community had on this project. The numerous footnotes in this study testify to that.

First, I would want to thank my mentor and supervisor Dr Robert Chisholm Jr. for his guidance throughout this journey. From the inception of this project to my struggles as I wrestled with the book of Micah, Dr Chisholm has patiently walked along beside me. He has provided immeasurable scholarly guidance and insights. I am sincerely grateful for his mentorship. Next, I would like to thank Dr Richard A. Taylor for his learned stimulus. His composure in and out of class has been of a source of encouragement. Similarly, I want to express a debt of gratitude to Dr Greg W. Parsons who first instilled in me an appreciation of the Hebrew Bible when I was pursuing my master’s degree in divinity. Dr Parsons encouraged me to pursue doctoral studies in Old Testament at Dallas Theological Seminary (DTS). It would be a travesty if I failed to thank the stimulating Old Testament faculty at DTS for their impact on my scholarship. Altogether, the praise in this present study reflects their scholarship, and any deficiencies are wholly mine. Finally, I would like to say thanks to the editorial staff at Langham Publishing for all their diligent work in putting together my manuscript for publication.

In closing, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my wife, Florence, who has followed the progress of this study with love, prayer, and indispensable support for the entire length of my seminary experience. I also sincerely thank my children, in birth order: Nyashadzashe, Dananai (both young adults now), Dadayinashe, and Itayinashe. I thank them for their love, patience, and understanding. I deeply love each one of them more than I can express here (Isa 8:18).

Abstract

Most scholars agree that although some parts of the book of Micah lack explicit cohesive links, there is sufficient thematic coherence in the final form of the book to encourage theological reflection. Perhaps the most likely example of thematic coherence is evident in Micah’s treatment of the concept of Yahweh’s sovereignty. Thus, the purpose herein will be to explore that coherence by analyzing how the reestablishment of Yahweh’s sovereignty relates to the fulfillment of the Abrahamic promises. While the coherence is not perfect because of some residual discontinuities, Micah’s use of the Zion/Davidic traditions may provide the needed reinforcement to build and develop this concept.

Methodologically, this study falls within the wider field of biblical theology. It puts forward a multiplex approach with Yahweh’s sovereignty as a central theme and Israel’s covenantal story as an encompassing metanarrative that frames the theme. The study structures its overall theological analysis and synthesis within a framework of the Zion/Davidic traditions. The traditions provide a ready-made framework for such an investigation because the three primary sub-themes that comprise the concept of Yahweh’s sovereignty and the pattern that summarizes Israel’s covenantal story are intrinsic to the Zion/Davidic traditions. More importantly, the traditions effectively reinterpret how the Abrahamic covenant is fulfilled for Micah’s generation. It is possible then to carry out a theological analysis and synthesis of Yahweh’s sovereignty in Micah under a single umbrella. Previous studies on the book of Micah have not yet adequately exploited this versatility of the Zion/Davidic traditions.

The theological analysis reveals that the reestablishment of Yahweh’s sovereignty is achieved through the restoration of Zion as the throne of Yahweh’s rule on earth and a Davidic king ruling as Yahweh’s vicegerent at Zion with a new humanity properly serving as Yahweh’s vicegerents worldwide. The divine intent is to restore the original order as at creation. A significant theological implication from our analysis is that Yahweh’s ultimate intention is to fulfill the Abrahamic promises – land, kingship, Israel’s status of honor as a great nation, and a new covenant community. Micah is extending those past promises to his eighth-century audience.

Abbreviations

Chapter 1

Introduction

Need for This Study

If any theological themes can be said to stand at the center of Micah’s seven chapters, one of them is certainly the sovereignty of Yahweh radiating from Zion.[1] In fact, the prophet’s name itself is a question that hints at this. The name Micah (מיכה‎) (Mic 1:1) is short for Micayah (מיכיה‎) (Jer 26:18), which means Who (מי‎) is like (כ‎) Yahweh (יה‎)?[2] The name speaks of Yahweh’s incomparability among the gods. Yahweh has no equal; he is the great king and he rules supremely. At the close of the book, the prophet also asks a related question, Who is a God like you? (מי־אל כמוך‎) (Mic 7:18). Evidently, it appears that the theme of Yahweh’s incomparability frames the whole book. So how does Yahweh demonstrate his sovereignty between these frames? How does Micah flesh out this theme? How do the various oracles of doom and hope in the book relate to it? These questions deserve answers.

Although Yahweh’s sovereignty is a major theme in the book of Micah, a moderate reading of its oracles makes clear that there is a logical and more detailed line of argumentation that is not so easy to grasp.[3] Prior to the nineteenth century, biblical scholars credulously regarded the book of Micah as authentic. However, in the last third of the nineteenth century, scholars laid down severe skepticism concerning various aspects of the book. For instance, some scholars observed the abrupt changes from doom to hope oracles (2:1–11, 12–13; 3:9–12; 4:1–5), one topic to another (7:1–7, 11–13), and, even more so, the shifts in person and gender (1:10; 6:16: 7:15–19).[4]

As a result, some scholars conclude that Micah’s book has no discernible structure; that is, Micah’s oracles superficially connect to one another. Keil and Delitzsch consider Micah’s style to be somewhat rough and rugged.[5] H. W. Wolff regards the book of Micah as too intricate to untangle. He remarks, This complicated meshwork, not so easily transparent, makes more difficult our understanding of the history of the book’s formation.[6] Because of such alleged compositional fragmentation, others contend that the book’s message appears veiled. D. R. Hillers expresses the difficulty even more sharply. He writes:

A much more serious problem is an apparent incoherence of thought which must impress the reader who approaches the book for the first time, and which is not necessarily alleviated by a prolonged study. It is difficult to understand how Micah hangs together in a logical, systematic, or historical way.[7]

The foregoing paragraphs underscore the typical experiences of many scholars who have critically read the book over the past century. Surprisingly, such experiences of despair have motivated other scholars to set aside questions about the redaction or structure of Micah in order to understand the book’s theological message. More recently, most scholars agree that even though some parts of Micah lack explicit cohesive markers, there is sufficient thematic coherence in the final form of the book to encourage theological reflection.[8] Perhaps the most likely example of thematic coherence is evident in Micah’s treatment of Yahweh’s sovereignty. While the coherence is not perfect because of some residual discontinuities,[9] Micah’s use of the Zion/Davidic traditions may provide the needed reinforcement to build and develop this theme.[10] As will become clear shortly, these traditions offer a ready-made framework for analyzing the concept of divine sovereignty. This is so because sub-themes and other features that define the concept are intrinsic to the Zion/Davidic traditions.

In a recent theological commentary on Micah, Philip Peter Jenson has given some attention to the theological theme of Yahweh’s sovereignty as an organizing principle for Micah. In fact, Jenson suggests that the theological dissonance between Yahweh as the sovereign God and his covenant relationship with a sinful community is the reason why the language, the form and theology of Micah is so complex.[11] Jenson’s summary of Micah implicitly suggests that the relationship between the hope and judgment oracles in Micah contributes to the challenges in reading Micah.

What is more, Jenson’s overall understanding of Micah’s theology is somewhat akin to how Roberts construes Isaiah’s vision for Zion’s future.[12] For Roberts, the framework for understanding such a vision is to attend to a twofold schema: divine king and human community. Two paradigmatic passages that adumbrate this schema are Isaiah 32:1–8 and 33:10–16, respectively.[13] For our purposes, Roberts’s take on the role of the people in the future era provides an indispensable lens for our treatment of Micah 6:1–7:20. He aptly writes:

If Zion is once again to be known as the faithful city of righteousness (Isa 1:26), this drastic change in Judean society must demand something of God’s people as well as its leaders. Just as radical purging of corrupt officials and their replacement by righteous judges appears as a prerequisite for the unfolding of the age of salvation, so the rest of society must also experience the purging effect of God’s judgment.[14]

Both strategies by Jenson and Roberts are the kind of motivation this study needs in order to reexamine Micah’s concept of divine sovereignty under a covenantal framework. Such a framework can be helpful in exploring Micah’s rich theological message. However, as I will discuss in a subsequent section, Jenson’s actual analysis is inconsistent with his foregoing claim.

Most recently, a handful of scholars have also turned towards the theological importance of the Zion/Davidic traditions in the book, arguing that the prophet’s central concern is for the restoration and eventual exaltation of Zion and her fortunes.[15] Frederik Poulsen’s and Rick R. Marrs’s studies are noteworthy in this regard. In discussing the Zion traditions in the prophets, Poulsen introduces the notion of the dynamic Zion tradition. In chapter 3, we will have more to say about this strand of the Zion traditions, but, for now, it is sufficient to say that Poulsen understands it as the development and transformation of Zion; that is, from judgment to restoration. For him, the dynamic Zion tradition proceeds in three phases: the destruction and the exile, the return, and the restoration of a new Zion.[16] Marrs also agrees with the two diametric poles of Zion in Micah: a Zion that experiences transformation through divine judgment and restoration.[17]

While these studies are commendable, several vistas for further research in Micah lie before us. A penetrating and significant observation stemming from our study of Micah is that the prophet utilizes key features from the Zion/Davidic traditions to underscore the concept of divine sovereignty. A search of scholarly literature shows that the Zion/Davidic traditions in Micah have received little scholarly attention in the past decades as a relevant framework for discussing the concept of divine sovereignty. To my knowledge, Micah studies have not yet adequately developed the Zion/Davidic traditions in Micah in order to surface the theological concept of divine sovereignty and its implication for the fulfillment of the Abrahamic promises. Since the concept of divine sovereignty serves as bookends to Micah’s book (i.e., the concept is expressed in terms of Yahweh’s incomparability [1:2; 7:18]), scholars have yet to develop the connection between the concept and the Abrahamic covenant to its logical conclusion.

Therefore, a significant question that will serve as a polestar for the synthesis portion of our study is: How does the concept of divine sovereignty in Micah relate to the fulfillment of the Abrahamic promises (7:18–20)? The foregoing observations and the several questions raised thus far warrant a reassessment of Micah’s portrayal of the concept of divine sovereignty. The present study is an attempt to answer these questions. However, before we can spell out our purpose and thesis statement in detail, we find it fitting to give a working definition of the concept of divine sovereignty.

Concept of Divine Sovereignty

Concept of Divine Sovereignty in the ANE Context

As is generally the case with many other topics in the ancient Near East (ANE) and in biblical studies, the concept of divine sovereignty is a vast subject.[18] In discussing the concept, one must acknowledge, without bias, its variegated expressions in the various cultures. If we exclude the reality of these variations, we erroneously eviscerate the theological dynamism the concept offered in the eyes of its authors and patrons. In this respect, Bernard F. Batto’s characterization of the concept provides an appropriate starting point for our discussion.

Batto avers that in the ANE, the concept of divine sovereignty had reference to the absolute and universal rule of the chief deity over heaven and earth.[19] Batto proceeds to note that the concept varied along geographical and chronological lines and reflected developments mainly in the earthly political realm.[20] Daniel I. Block perceptively adds that the chief gods – that is, the primordial cosmic gods who served as heads of the pantheons – exercised universal sovereignty.[21] In other words, the concept of divine sovereignty in the ANE assumed that the chief deity was a creator god.

As a first impression, Batto’s claim for absolute or universal sovereignty sounds dubious given the polytheistic nature of ANE cultures. While this is a valid objection, there is other evidence to consider. Before we present the evidence, we should mention that our more developed theology should not impinge on what the ancient authors believed about their supreme gods. It would also be a travesty to impose ancient Israel’s notion of divine sovereignty on its neighbors. Divine sovereignty took various forms, based mainly on each culture’s view of its pantheon. Israel had no pantheon, so sovereignty took a significantly different form. No gods served as Yahweh’s viceroys, whereas in other ANE cultures some gods served in this capacity. Yet even in such cases, where some of the gods in the pantheon served as vicegerents in governing parts of the cosmos,[22] ultimate authority resided in the hands of the supreme deity. He alone could issue unchallenged decrees.

In any event, a closer examination of the evidence from Mesopotamia substantiates the claim that Marduk exercised absolute or universal sovereignty. While the Mesopotamian pantheon is complex,[23] scholars discern a pattern in its evolution that runs from the fourth down to the first millennium BC.[24] In the initial stages, divine power was distributed among many gods who were basically associated with powers of nature.[25] However, in the later stages, the number of major gods shrank and the pantheon became more structured.[26] As such, more power concentrated on fewer deities, the cosmic gods.[27]

With the rise of Babylon’s imperial hegemony over the ancient world in the latter part of the second millennium BC,[28] the Epic of Creation portrays an evolution of political power from a pantheon of equals deliberating policy to an absolute king proclaiming policy for the whole pantheon and the universe.[29] As the evidence indisputably suggests, Marduk, after his victory over Tiamat, became the absolute and universal sovereign of heaven and earth, as all the gods in the pantheon ceded their powers to him.[30] The fact that all these gods granted Marduk sovereignty should not erode the absolute or universal character of that sovereignty. The authors/theologians of this epic sincerely believed that their god, Marduk, was a creator god, who ruled over all creatures and could pronounce immutable decrees without the consent of the other gods.

A. R. George has also reached a similar conclusion. As he puts it, The business of the assembly after Marduk’s enthronement is the decreeing of destinies: in the myth the gods decree absolute sovereignty for Marduk.[31] In a fascinating and multifaceted study on creation, William P. Brown also adds: By unanimous consent, Marduk is made the one and only sovereign deity.[32]

In Assyria, Ashur simply supplanted Marduk as the absolute sovereignty.[33] Just as the poet of the Epic of Creation utilized themes used to exalt Ninurta in the Anzu myth and assigned them to Marduk,[34] Neo-Assyrian theologians appropriated this myth of divine sovereignty for their own national god simply by substituting everywhere the name of Ashur in place of Marduk.[35] A catalyst for such an adaptation by the Neo-Assyrian theologians was the political ascendency of Assyria as a world power.

As we move west to Ugarit, the evidence contradicts the basic contention that Baal shared equal status with El in governing the cosmos. Admittedly, the mythological texts from Ugarit revolve around the exploits of Baal, the storm god (CTA 1–6).[36] The action centers primarily on the conflict between Baal and the other gods (i.e. Yamm and Mot) in their quest for domination in the cosmos but not for El’s throne per se.[37] The wise El stood above these battles and intervened only when necessary. Thus, the seemingly passive role of the compassionate El in these conflicts need not suggest that he shared supremacy with Baal or any other lesser god.[38]

First, the mythological texts from Ugarit portray El as the creator of the gods.[39] He is referred to as Creator of creatures (CTA 4:II:11; 4:III:32; 6:III:5, 11). In the Birth of the Gracious and Beautiful Gods, El fathers the gods Dawn and Dusk (CTA 23:31-64).[40] Besides the Ugaritic texts, other sources show that El was the creator of heaven and earth. E. Theodore Mullen Jr. and others draw attention to the Karapate inscription and a Hittite fragment that show that El was viewed as a creator god.[41] Thus, the ancient clergies at Ugarit consistently viewed El, their primordial god, as the father of the gods and creator of heaven and earth.[42] As such, he was suzerain and owner of the universe. As the creator god, he was king over his creation, and absolute ruler of the gods (cf. CTA 1:III:23–24; 2:III:5; 3:V:15–16; 4:IV:23–26).[43]

Second, while El may appear to play a secondary role in the Ugaritic texts, he still held absolute sway over all the gods, including Baal. As the ultimate ruler, El established spheres of jurisdiction in the cosmos. Only by his decree were the younger gods appointed to govern particular realms.[44] El decreed that Yamm attain kingship (CTA 1:IV:11, 13, 17–18, 20). El commanded Kôṯaru-wa-Ḫasīsu to build a temple for Yamm, thus, pronouncing him king (CTA 2:III:6–11).[45] Besides establishing kingship for the other gods, El could also remove the younger gods from their assigned dominions. Šapšu emphatically made clear to ʻAṯtaru that El would dethrone him.[46] Similarly, the same threat was expressed to Mot as he was about to vanquish Baal (CTA 6:VI:22–20).[47] In these lines, we read that Mot was afraid of losing his rule.

In the case of Baal, the text clarifies that El established Baal’s kingship.[48] Only by El’s decree did Baal attain a temple, a symbol of his kingship (CTA 4:IV:58–V:63). In addition, the subordination of Baal’s rule to the authority of El is evident in Ug 5 2.1 (RS 24.252 recto) and Ug 5 2.2 (RS 24.252 verso).[49] According to Conrad E. L’Heureux, Ug 5 2.1 contains Baal’s prayer to be confirmed as El’s shepherd, that is, El’s vice-regent for Ugarit.[50] Likewise, Lowell K. Handy adds, Baal served in a position subordinate to EL.[51] If L’Heureux and Handy are correct, then the notion of vicegerency does not diminish El’s sovereignty. In fact, the notion is consistent with divine sovereignty. Simply put, vicegerency in the cosmic realm complements divine sovereignty, just as the human king does in the earthly realm.

It is within the context informed by the foregoing evidence that this study understands El as the absolute sovereign at Ugarit. Unfortunately, Frank Cross concludes otherwise. For him, El’s sovereignty was anything but absolute, since the chief god cowed when Yamm demanded the council to hand over Baal. However, Cross’s conclusion is not as strong as it appears. Apparently the opening scene in the Baal Cycle recounts El and Yamm conspiring the death of Baal (CAT 1.1.V).[52] Thus, El had no reason to reject Yamm’s demands, since he was involved in the plot to attack Baal in the first place. Against Cross, his dissertation advisor at Harvard University, Mullen also presents a persuasive case to correct the misconception that Baal was equal to El.[53] As he rightly concludes, El’s function as king reveals that he alone is the supreme power in the pantheon. He sits enthroned over the gods and rules them from a position of supreme power.[54]

Furthermore, a related feature in the concept of the divine sovereign in the ANE was that a deity earned the status of divine sovereignty following the battle against, and victory over, hostile and chaotic forces. For instance, pharaohs in Memphite theology, Marduk in Babylon, Asshur in Assyria, and Baal in Ugaritic are all depicted as warrior gods. The underlying belief here is that the pharaohs, Marduk, Asshur, and Baal each became king of the gods and cosmos because they fought the chaos that threatened order in society and in nature. Following their victory, the victor gods had a new temple/palace built for them from which they were acclaimed kings.[55] Batto goes on to clarify that one of the functions of the divine sovereign was to bring order into the midst of chaos, to establish the conditions under which meaningful existence was not only possible but even guaranteed.[56]

Another valuable dimension in the concept of the divine sovereign in the ANE was that the human king ruled the earth on behalf of the gods. For instance, in Egypt, the pharaoh was the embodiment of Horus and Osiris in life and in death, respectively.[57] The pharaoh issued decrees, which had the force of the divine will.[58] Similar conceptions prevailed in Ugarit, whereby King Kirta served as El’s earthly regent.[59] Batto also presents iconographic evidence from the Neo-Assyrian period, which depicts the various kings as viceroy of the divine sovereignty.[60] For example, wall reliefs in the palace of Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) depict the Assyrian king’s action almost exactly as those of an anthropomorphic god placed in winged sundisk.[61] According to Batto, the winged sundisk is an expression of the power of the king as the nexus between heaven and earth wherein peace, security and the weal of the kingdom are accomplished.[62]

Concept of Divine Sovereignty in the Old Testament

Yahweh as creator

Although the foregoing concept of divine sovereignty was widely shared