Trends in Non-alcoholic Beverages

By Charis M. Galanakis

Trends in Nonalcoholic Beverages covers the most recent advances, production issues and nutritional and other effects of different nonalcoholic beverages, such as carbonated beverages, cereal-based beverages, energy drinks, fruit punches, non-dairy milk products, nonalcoholic beer, ready-to-drink products (e.g. tea, coffee), smoothies, sparkling and reduced water beverages. In addition, it covers relevant issues, such as traditional non-alcoholic beverages, labeling and safety issues during production, as well as the intake of functional compounds in particular applications. This is an essential resource for food scientists, technologists, engineers, nutritionists and chemists as well as professionals working in the food/beverage industry.

• Provides nutrient profiles and the effects of non-alcoholic beverages
• Presents the relevance of the HACCP system for the non-alcoholic beverage industry
• Covers a broad range of different non-alcoholic beverages that exist in the market and their characteristics with regard to personalized nutrition

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Aug 29, 2019
• ISBN: 9780128169391

Book preview

Slovenia

Preface

Charis M. Galanakis¹,², ¹Food Waste Recovery Group, ISEKI Food Association, Vienna, Austria, ²Research & Innovation Department, Galanakis Laboratories, Chania, Greece

Nonalcoholic drinks are nowadays the new trend in the market of beverages, facing a growing evolution. This is driven by the continuous introduction of innovations in many different aspects (e.g., reduced calorie content, flavor) of these products. Indeed, a renaissance of new nonalcoholic products has reached the market and subsequently research on this field has attracted great interest. Commercial nonalcoholic beverages (e.g., tea, coffee, cocoa, fruit smoothies, etc.) include an extensive and ever-increasing variety of products that are part of modern diet patterns, appreciated for their stimulant flavors and convenience of consumption while also being associated with leisure time and social activities. In addition, they contain numerous functional and nutritious ingredients like vitamins, antimicrobials, minerals, flavors, and antioxidants. The degradation of these compounds during processing and storage leads to degradation of the beverage itself and subsequently establishes its shelf life. However, with the recent advances in personalized nutrition and food processing fields (e.g., nonthermal technologies, modern encapsulation techniques, etc.), new developments, data, and state of the art come up in the field. Modern new product developers, food scientists, and technologists often deal with new product development and functional foods and, thus, more integral references are needed.

The Food Waste Recovery Group (www.foodwasterecovery.group of ISEKI Food Association) has organized different training and development actions in the field of food science and technology, for example, teaching material (e-course, reference module, training workshops, webinars), an experts’ database, and news channels (social media pages, videos, blogs) aiming at disseminating knowledge and bridging the gap between academia and food industry. The group has also published books dealing with food waste recovery technologies, different food processing by-products’ valorization (e.g., from olive, grape, cereals, coffee, meat, etc.), sustainable food systems, innovations in the food industry and traditional foods, nutraceuticals and nonthermal processing, shelf life and food quality, and personalized nutrition as well as targeting applications of functional compounds like polyphenols, proteins, carotenoids, and dietary fiber.

Following these efforts, Trends in Non-alcoholic Beverages aims at covering nonalcoholic beverages in view of the new advances in production technologies, stability, nutritional characteristics, and applications in the market. The ultimate goal is to support the scientific community, professionals, and enterprises that aspire to develop industrial and commercialized products.

The book consists of 11 chapters. Chapter 1 introduces carbonated beverages (e.g. soft drinks, energy drinks and others) with an historical overview of nonalcoholic drinks starting from carbonated water up to today’s various carbonated drink categories. It also describes water treatment, carbonation, sugar dissolving, syrup production, packaging, marketing, and legislative issues. Olfactory sensations of carbonated beverages, marketing, and branding are all factors that contribute to a product’s success. Not long ago, the industry experienced major changes regarding product innovations and offerings. To face the growing market challenges, companies are bringing in new flavors taking into account the well-being and health concerns of consumers. The bottled sparkling water segment is a very competitive market, still looking for new insights and further development regarding carbon dioxide and bubble dynamics. Chapter 2 discusses theoretical and experimental observations relevant to common situations involving the conditioning and tasting of carbonated bottled waters, under standard tasting conditions. More generally, the very large area of nonalcoholic sparkling beverages could also certainly benefit from such developments regarding bubble dynamics and gas-solution thermodynamics.

Beverages with properties to improve gastrointestinal health such as probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics are one of the most important segments within functional foods. In this line, Chapter 3 covers nonalcoholic and functional beverages based on cereals. Those products have recently gained a lot of attention, especially for medical reasons (lactose intolerance, cow’s milk allergy) or as a lifestyle choice. Depending on the processing steps involved, cereal-based beverages could be classified as nonfermented and fermented. Nonfermented beverages may be used in the form of stimulants such as tea and coffee, as refreshers like soft drinks and water, or as nutritional drinks such as dairy-milk substitutes. Cereal-based beverages are deficient in some basic components (e.g., amino acid lysine), but fermentation may improve their nutritional value and sensory properties.

Tea and its consumption has also been claimed to be associated with beneficial health effects. Indeed, systematic scientific studies have proposed the beneficial effects of regular use of tea on modulating the initiation and propagation of cardiovascular diseases and carcinogenesis. Chapter 4 provides insights into the ready-to-drink teas available in the market, and discusses processing and manufacturing aspects, health benefits, bioavailability, and strategies to enhance and improve production.

Chapter 5 provides a compelling overview of the most relevant applications for the production of nonalcoholic drinks (e.g., beer, wine, cider) by means of membrane-based technologies (e.g., nanofiltration, pervaporation, osmotic distillation, diafiltration, dialysis, reverse osmosis, membrane distillation, and membrane contactor). Particular attention is paid to experimental results which provide successful ethanol removal and minimal changes on physicochemical properties of the beverages. In Chapter 6 trends and processing methods (advantages and drawbacks) in nonalcoholic beer production (biologically and physically via membranes) are discussed. Biological methods rely on altering process conditions and yeasts, whereas nonconventional yeasts have recently been emerging thanks to rapid advances in molecular biology. These yeasts include genetically modified strains and yeasts from non-Saccharomyces genus.

Chapter 7 discusses processing of nonalcoholic beverages using nonthermal technologies. Considering product quality, consumers demand food with high levels of organoleptic and nutritional quality, but free of any health risks. The development of such kinds of products is usually connected with a reduction in the processing temperature, since thermal treatment often leads to loss of the desired organoleptic properties of fresh products and damage to temperature-labile nutrients and vitamins. Chapter 8 also deals with nonthermal technologies, targeting applications of high-power ultrasound, ultraviolet irradiation, high-hydrostatic pressure, high-pressure homogenization, and pulsed-electric fields for the processing of noncarbonated beverages. After providing the fundaments and main mechanisms of these technologies, it describes microorganisms’ and enzymes’ inactivation, as well as physical and sensorial properties’ modification and nutritional composition changes.

Chapter 9 presents the general rules for labeling of foods and drinks in the European Union, explaining mandatory information on food packages, including nutrition declaration, and provisions related with labeling of food allergens, additives, and other ingredients, as well as specifics related to added vitamins and minerals. Various front-of-package shames for labeling of nutritional composition or overall nutritional food quality are also presented, although the majority of those are not used in the European Union. In addition, examples of nutrition and health claims that can be used in Europe are denoted prior to focusing on possible uses of food labeling in research, for example, for monitoring the food supply. Chapter 10 draws an updated map of the nutrition facts in the different categories of nonalcoholic beverages in the European and Spanish market based on the information available on their labels, and also provides also an overview of the impact on diet quality. In fact, the increased consumption has been translated into important changes in diet quality (e.g., caloric and lipid profile). Finally, Chapter 11 provides a public health perspective on the consumption of soft drinks and sugar-sweetened beverages. Given the growing amount of scientific evidence emphasizing negative health impacts of sugar-sweetened beverages, dietary guidelines consistently recommend limiting added or free-sugar consumption, particularly in the form of sugar-sweetened beverages. In response, public health policies across the globe are taking actions to reduce their consumption.

Conclusively, the book addresses food scientists and technologists, consultants, nutrition researchers, and food chemists working with food applications and food processing as well as those who are interested in the development of innovative products and functional foods. It could be used by University libraries and institutes worldwide as a textbook and ancillary reading for undergraduate and postgraduate level multidiscipline courses dealing with food science, food technology, and nutrition.

It is important to highlight and thank all the authors for their dedication in this effort. Their accepting my invitation, editorial guidelines, and timelines are highly appreciated. I consider myself fortunate to have had the opportunity to collaborate with so many experts of nonalcoholic beverages worldwide including colleagues from the Czech Republic, Brazil, France, India, Italy, México, Lithuania, Palestine, Perú, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, and the United States. I would also like to acknowledge the acquisition editor Patricia Osborn, the book manager Katerina Zaliva, and all members of Elsevier’s publication team for their help during the editing and production process.

Last, but not least, a message for all the readers of this book. This reference is a collaborative scientific effort of hundreds of thousands of words and, of course, it may contain some errors or gaps. Instructive comments, questions, or even criticism are always welcome, so please do not hesitate to contact me in order to discuss any issues concerning nonalcoholic beverages.

Chapter 1

Carbonated Beverages

Ibrahim M. Abu-Reidah,    Arab American University, West Bank, Palestine

Abstract

Soft drinks are produced around the world and they are widely available. Carbonated beverages (CBs) make up the bulk of the global soft drink industry. The market for these products is still continuing to show outstanding growing potential. The global market of CBs is anticipated to reach more than US$410 billion by 2023, at a compound annual growth rate of 2.8%. The CB product category includes soft drinks, energy drinks, and others. Olfactory sensations of CBs, marketing, and branding are all factors that contribute to the products’ success. Not long ago, the industry experienced major changes regarding product innovations and offerings. To face the growing market challenges, companies are bringing in new flavors taking into account the well-being and health concerns of consumers. This chapter introduces CBs with an historical overview of these popular drinks starting from carbonated water up to the current various carbonated drink categories. It discusses water treatment, carbonation, and formulation of carbonated drinks. Sugar dissolving, syrup production, packaging, marketing, and legislative issues are also highlighted. Finally, the current and future development trends of the CB industry are discussed.

Keywords

Soft drinks; carbonated beverages; carbon dioxide; sweeteners; energy drinks; intelligent packaging; botanicals

Chapter Outline

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Ingredients 4

1.2.1 Water 4

1.2.2 Sweeteners 5

1.2.3 Acidulants 7

1.2.4 Preservatives 10

1.2.5 Carbon Dioxide 10

1.2.6 Flavors 11

1.2.7 Colorants 13

1.2.8 Carbon Dioxide Production 15

1.2.9 Carbonation (CO2 Impregnation) Process 16

1.2.10 Syrup Preparation 17

1.2.11 Deaeration 18

1.2.12 Carbonators 18

1.2.13 Mixing Procedures 18

1.2.14 Filling Processes 19

1.2.15 Continuous Blend Production 19

1.2.16 Packaging 21

1.3 Types of Carbonated Beverages 23

1.3.1 Cola 23

1.3.2 Energy and Sports Drinks 23

1.3.3 Functional Beverages 24

1.3.4 Low and Mid-Calorie beverages 25

1.4 Balancing of Acidity and Sweetness 25

1.5 Quality Standards 26

1.6 Regulatory Issues of Beverages 27

1.7 Economic Aspects 27

1.8 Quality Control 28

1.8.1 Ingredients 28

1.8.2 Syrup 29

1.8.3 Beverages 29

1.8.4 Packaging 30

1.9 Basic Considerations in the Soda Industry 30

1.10 Sensory Evaluation of Carbonated Soft Drinks 31

1.11 Recent and Future Advances and Trends 31

1.11.1 Insights and Perspectives 33

1.12 Conclusion 35

References 35

Further Reading 36

1.1 Introduction

The consumption of beverages in their various forms has taken place over many centuries to meet humanity’s fundamental requirement of hydration. The most obvious source of hydration is water; however, over time much of our drinking water has become very unsafe since it is often polluted by microorganisms (MOs). Outbreaks of dysentery, cholera, and other water-borne diseases were common in many European towns before the 20th century. Today’s beverage market is diverse and enormous. While carbonated beverages (CBs) might have been enjoyed as an occasional treat only one or two generations ago, now they are omnipresent and consumed by almost everyone. This can be seen from the global consumption of CBs, which reached more than 200 million liters in 2013. In spite of the decline of the volume of CBs consumed in recent years, it is clear that carbonated drinks continue to be very common refreshments.

The first palatable carbonated water was produced by J. Priestley in England in 1767. A few years later, T. Bergman invented a system that produced carbonated mineral water on a commercial level. Then in 1783, Jacob Schweppes accomplished an efficient method for manufacturing carbonated mineral water and created the Schweppes Company-Geneva. From then on, the addition of flavoring substances to sparkling water developed to produce various and major soft drink brands all over the world. S. Fahnestock, in 1819, developed the soda fountain. The problem of loss of carbonation was avoided by the use of Crown corks and the automated production lines of glass bottles in the late-18th century. Since then, advances in the closing technology, bottles and cans design and manufacturing, syrup recipes, carbonation and filling machines have led to the giant worldwide beverage industry we currently know (D. Steen).

The first flavored drink contained lemon juice (lemonade) and was sugared with honey or table sugar and is believed to have originated in Italy. The CB has its beginning in the study of mineral waters in Europe in the 16th century. In the late-18th century, artificial mineral waters were investigated for their medicinal properties in Europe and the United States. The first marketable artificial mineral water was manufactured in Europe during the 1780s and in the United States in the early 1800s. Flavored CBs, or soft drinks, were developed by chemists and apothecaries in the 19th century by the addition of flavored syrups to fountain-dispensed carbonated water. The introduction of proprietary flavors began in the late-1880s.

Lazenby created the formula for Dr Pepper in 1885, while J. Pemberton settled the formula for Coca-Cola the next year. Brad’s Drink (Pepsi-Cola) was introduced in 1896. Poor flavoring, spoilage, and color constancy were the main obstacles that limited the past bottling progression. Improvements and innovations in bottling equipment, glass manufacturing, stable flavors, crown closures, ingredients, and transportation lead to the rapid growth of bottled soft drinks manufacturing. Soft drinks consist of carbonated water, nonnutritive and/or nutritive sweeteners, acidulants, preservatives, juices, flavorings, and colorants. Recently, the diversity of beverage products has burst.

After an intensive decade or more of consolidation, innovation, and meeting consumer demand, the well-known marketers of liquid drinks have become, quite simply, beverage companies. Companies such as The PepsiCo, The Coca-Cola Company, and Schweppes’ Americas Beverages are identical with carbonated drinks. Their brands, Coke, Pepsi, and Dr Pepper, were first tasted in the late-19th century and became Americans’ most loved refreshments in the 20th century.

A beverage is typically defined as a drink particularly prepared for human consumption. The word beverage originated from the French word boivre meaning to drink. Soft drinks provide hydration and quench thirst. A wide choice of these beverages are available in various tastes, including soda water, tonic water, diet/lite versions, herbal or botanical, energy, and carbonated drinks (Appleton et al., 2018; Ullmann’s Food and Feed, 2016). CBs are drinks that comprise dissolved carbon dioxide. The dissolution of CO2 in a liquid, gives rise to effervescence. This is a result of carbon dioxide pressure release from the solution. The carbonation idea started with naturally gassy mineral water. The presence of carbon dioxide in aerated water and soft drinks make them more palatable and visually attractive.

Today, beverage manufacturers varying their palates based on the consumers' desires and appetites. While 50 years ago the soft drink business produced cola and a few other flavors, currently there are low-calorie, mid-calorie, and no-calorie sodas. There are caffeine-free and caffeinated formulas. The tropical tastes have combined lemon-lime. In summary, there is a carbonated form for every appetite and taste.

At some point, advanced technology can lead to greater efficiency of soft drink production during all the manufacturing stages. New methods of water pasteurization, sterilization, and clarification may advance production and diminish the need for preserving additives in soft drinks.

1.2 Ingredients

1.2.1 Water

Water is the main single ingredient used in CBs, and must be of high purity. Many local municipalities supply drinking water that does not meet the requirements in terms of purity levels for use in CBs. Water must be treated to remove different types of impurities such as chemical (inorganic and organic substances), biological (microbiological contaminants), and physical (particulate matter) that may affect the organoleptic properties, namely the odor, taste, or appearance of the final drink. Water treatment in the beverage industry includes essential steps such as chlorination, coagulation, clarification, lime-softening, (ultra)filtration through sediment filter, or activated carbon filtration. Water for soft drinks must be pure and free from organic/inorganic matters, heavy metals, and have low alkalinity. Water can be treated in the soft drink industry with chemical treatment, reverse osmosis (RO), monochromatic UV radiation, ultrafiltration (UF)/microfiltration, chlorination, and/or ion exchange to make it safe for soft drinks.

1.2.1.1 Chemical Treatment of Municipal Water

Chemical treatment is used by most CB facilities. Treatment includes chlorination for disinfection purposes and oxidation of some impurities in the water. The water is then softened through the addition of lime to reduce alkalinity by removing magnesium and calcium bicarbonates. The reaction products formed as a result of the softening process are removed by coagulation. The coagulants, ferrous sulfate or potassium aluminum sulfate, react with the calcium or magnesium hydroxides to form precipitates. The precipitates settle out and are removed from the bottom of the reaction tank. Any residual precipitates are removed by passing the water through a sand filter. Activated carbon adsorption is used to remove chlorine and any other organic compounds, thus reducing the chance of undesirable odors or tastes. The water may then go through a final polishing stage of filtration to remove any carbon fines.

1.2.1.2 Reverse Osmosis

In this process, the removal of most water contaminants is achieved. Water is passed at high pressure through a semipermeable membrane. Owing to the very small pore size, particulates and microbiological contaminants are retained on the membrane. Organic material and dissolved ions are affected by the charge on the membrane and are also retained. The membrane-filtered water can then be used for product water. RO is generally used as a polishing step for other water treatment methods.

1.2.1.3 Ultrafiltration

This process removes particulate matter, macromolecules, pyrogens, and MOs by using thin and selectively permeable membranes. UF is generally employed as a polishing process, but cannot remove ions from water.

1.2.1.4 Ion Exchange

). Fortunately, these resins can be regenerated and reused.

1.2.2 Sweeteners

The sweeteners used in CBs can be either nutritive or nonnutritive. The quality of the sweetener is one of the utmost important parameters affecting the overall quality of the beverage. Important quality parameters should be taken into consideration when selecting the sweetener such as organoleptic profile (taste and odor), solubility, and microbial and temperature stability.

1.2.2.1 Nutritive Sweeteners

These include sucrose in solution (syrup), granulated sucrose, dextrose, invert sugar, and high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). Sucrose [57-50-1], C12H22O11, obtained from cane or sugar beets was used in ancient times as the principal sweetener for CBs. In the presence of acids, sucrose is hydrolyzed to dextrose (D-glucose) [50-99-7], C6H12O6, and fructose [57-48-7], C6H12O6, to form a mixture which is called invert sugar. A change in the sugar profile changes the perception of sweetness in the beverage. Industrial invert sugar is used in stead of using the traditional method by allowing the sweetened beverage itself to invert over time.

HFCS was first used in the beverage industry in the early-1970s. HFCS replaced sucrose as the primary nutritive sweetener for the beverage industry by 1984. HFCS is produced from corn starch through breaking down the starch into glucose, enzymatic conversion of glucose to fructose, separation of the sugars, and blending of the sugars to produce various percentages of fructose and glucose. Different HFCS types are available with varying concentrations of fructose and percentage of solids. The choice of sweetener is dependent on the final sweetness desired and the beverage formula. Manufacturers may choose to use blends of sweeteners and the most common blends consist of various concentrations of liquid invert sugar and HFCS. Normally, the percentage of sweetener used in a soft drink may range from 7% to 14% (White et al., 2015).

1.2.2.2 Nonnutritive Sweeteners

Diet or low-calorie beverages represent a significant share (~30%) of the total soft drink market. Currently, aspartame, saccharin, stevia, sucralose, neotame, alitame, and acesulfame K are the most commonly known nonnutritive sweeteners approved for use in beverages by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Union.

1.2.2.3 Saccharin (Sugar Twin), [81-07-2], C7H5NO3S

Discovered in 1878, saccharin has the longest history of use of all the nonnutritive sweeteners, and was first available for commercial use in 1900. It was used in soft drinks as a blend with sucrose during World War I because of the shortage of nutritive sweeteners. Saccharin is 300–400 times sweeter than sucrose. The FDA formally approved its use in foods and beverages in 1938. However, in 1977 the FDA proposed a ban on saccharin as a bulk additive in foods. The US Congress has enforced and frequently renewed a moratorium on the proposed ban of saccharin in beverages. Saccharin is considered calorie-free.

1.2.2.4 Aspartame [22839-47-0], C14H18N2O5

Aspartame is the primary nonnutritive sweetener used in carbonated soft drinks. It is a low-calorie and intense sweetener that is ~200 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar). It is used in a variety of foods and beverages including drinks, energy-reduced diets, and as a tabletop sweetener. Aspartame has been broadly used for over 30 years. Aspartame was first discovered in 1965 and received initial FDA and EU approval in 1981. Aspartame-sweetened soft drinks can play an advantageous role to help people manage or reduce their intake of calories (https://www.unesda.eu/lexikon, 2019).

Some sources consider aspartame as a nutritive sweetener due to its composition of the methyl ester of a dipeptide of L-phenylalanine and L-aspartic acid. It is sensitive to low pH and elevated temperatures and decomposes over time. Aspartame can be used alone or in blends with other sweeteners.

1.2.2.5 Sucralose, [56038-13-2], C12H19Cl3O8

Sucralose has a taste-quality and time-intensity profile closer to sucrose than any other sweetener. Sucralose is made up of one sucrose molecule attached with three chlorine atoms. The human body does not identify sucralose as a carbohydrate, and so it is poorly absorbed and generally excreted unchanged in urine or feces. Therefore it provides no calories.

1.2.2.6 Stevia

Stevia is used around the world to sweeten beverages and foods. Bulking agents are normally used in some stevia sweetener formulas to add a palatable flavor and to reduce the aftertaste. Four major steviol glycosides are found in the stevia plant, including rebaudioside A (reb A, stevioside, reb C, dulcoside A). In the scientific literature, Steviol glycosides are referred to as stevia, stevia glycoside, and stevioside.

1.2.2.7 Acesulfame-Potassium (Ace-K), [55589-62-3], C4H4KNO4S

Ace-K was approved by the FDA in 1998 for use in beverages, and in 2003 as a general sweetener. Ace-K is often combined with other sweeteners in low-calorie foods and beverages. It possesses no glycemic impacts. Ace-K resembles saccharin in structure and taste profile and has a long shelf life.

1.2.2.8 Neotame, [165450-17-9], C20H30N2O5

At the present time, neotame is available to food manufacturers for sweetening processed foods but not directly to consumers for home use. Neotame is similar to aspartame, and is a derivative of the amino species, phenylalanine and aspartic acid. In 2002, neotame was approved by the FDA as an all-purpose sweetener. This sweetener has essentially the same qualities as aspartame, having no bitter or metallic aftertaste. Neotame is strongly sweet, with a sweetening power between 7000 and 13,000 times of sucrose. It is approximately 30–60 times sweeter than aspartame.

1.2.2.9 Alitame, [80863-62-3], C14H25N3O4S

Alitame is an aspartic acid-containing dipeptide sweetener. Alitame is a second-generation dipeptide sweetener. Alitame has no aftertaste, and is around 2000-times sweeter than sucrose and ~10-times sweeter than aspartame. Its half-life under hot or acidic conditions is about twice as long as aspartame, although some other artificial sweeteners, including saccharin and acesulfame K, are even more stable.

1.2.2.10 Sodium Cyclamate, [139-05-9], C6H12NNaO3S

Sodium cyclamate is an artificial sweetener ~30–60 times sweeter than sucrose and is the least strong of commercially used sweeteners. It can be mixed with other artificial sweeteners, particularly saccharin; the mixture of 10:1 ratio of cyclamate and saccharin parts, respectively, is commonly used to mask the off-tastes of the two types of sweeteners. It is cheaper than most sweeteners and is stable upon heating. The EU recognizes cyclamates as safe.

1.2.3 Acidulants

Acidulants give beverages a sour or tart flavor, preservatives in microbial control, chelating agents, buffers, and facilitates the sucrose inversion process in sweetened beverages. The principal acidulants used in the CB industry are citric acid and phosphoric acid. Other acidulants include tartaric, malic, and adipic acid (Table 1.1). Fig. 1.1 illustrates the structures of most commonly used acidulants in carbonated drinks.

Table 1.1

Figure 1.1 Structures of main acidulant additives used in the carbonated drinks.

1.2.3.1 Phosphoric Acid

After citric acid, the second-most commonly used acidulant in the beverage industry is phosphoric acid as it is used in producing cola drinks which are sold extensively all over the world. This acid is recognized for its pungent, sharp taste that amazingly completes the flavor of cola. This acid is the primary acidulant in cola beverages.

Phosphoric acid is stronger than most organic acids and weaker than other mineral acids. The dibasic properties of phosphoric acid provide a minor buffering capacity in the beverage. Food-grade phosphoric acid is commercially available in concentrations of 75%, 80%, and 85% and is one of the most economical acidulants. This acid comprises phosphorus, which is considered an essential nutrient and is one of the basic elements of nature. Phosphorus is also a major component of bones. All cola beverages contain 40–70 mg phosphorus per 350 mL serving (Massey and Strang, 1982).

1.2.3.2 Citric Acid

This acid is used in a variety of flavored CBs, including lemon-lime, orange, other fruit flavors, and colas. Citric acid acts as an antioxidant by sequestering heavy metals. Citric acid is naturally found in most fruits, especially citrus.

1.2.3.3 Tartaric Acid

Tartaric acid has a naturally sour taste and gives soft drinks a sharp tart flavor. It is the utmost water-soluble of all solid acidulants. It gives a strong tart-taste which enhances soft drinks’ flavors. Tartaric acid is often used to give a sour taste in lime- and grape-flavored beverages. It is one of the chief acids exist in soft drinks. Tartaric acid can preserve foods and it is often added to the CBs.

1.2.3.4 Ascorbic Acid

Ascorbic acid, a form of vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid or ascorbate), acts primarily as an antioxidant and reducing agent as it is an added nutrient in beverages. It reacts readily with oxygen (oxidized), by which preventing the oxidation of certain flavoring components. It is used in foods as an antioxidant, preservative, or color stabilizer, and can be used for to boost food’s vitamin C content. Ascorbic acid is considered as a safe additive, with a lower incidence of adverse effects or other allergic reactions. It can be commonly used as antioxidant food additives in a variety of forms, including salts and esters such as, calcium, sodium, and potassium ascorbates, ascorbyl stearate palmitate, or ascorbyl palmitate. Ascorbic acid is industrially produced through a multistep process involving bacteria that reduce glucose and produce ascorbic acid as a by-product. The reduced pH of ascorbic acid may help to prevent microbial growth, thereby preserving freshness and preventing spoilage.

1.2.3.5 Malic Acid

Malic acid is generally used for the production of low-calorie beverages. It is a bit cheaper in comparison to citric acid and can replace citric acid in some flavored CBs. Malic acid enhances fruit flavors in soft drinks by prolonging their release and so the recipient cells are stimulated for a longer period of time, which is translated by the brain as a stronger fruit flavor. Malic acid provides more acidity per unit of weight than other acidulants used in carbonated soft drinks. The result is that the weight of the acidulant packages weighed previously is reduced. It can also provide cost savings and is recommended for use in beverage syrup (0.03%–0.90%) by dissolving after the addition benzoates, if used, have completely dissolved.

1.2.4 Preservatives

The carbonation and acid content in lemon-lime and cola beverages usually act as adequate preservation against microbial growth. Sorbate and benzoate or salts are frequently added to other beverages for such protection (Table 1.2).

Table 1.2

Sodium or potassium benzoates are universally used preservatives that act as active agents against yeast and mold at a concentration of ~0.05%. Benzoate, if used in higher concentrations, can also act effectively against bacteria. It is highly effective when the pH is between 2.0 and 4.0. Potassium or sodium sorbates hinder the growth of yeast and mold most effectively at pH values below 6.5.

1.2.5 Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide [124-38-9] provides soft drinks with an acidic bite, pungent taste, and sparkling fizz. Carbon dioxide also acts as a preservative against mold, yeast, and bacteria. The carbon dioxide used in soft drinks must be of food-grade quality and impurity-free in order to avoid affecting the odor or taste of the final product.

The carbonation measure mostly used is based on carbon dioxide volumes dissolved in 1 L of beverage at standard temperature and pressure conditions (0°C, 1 atm). Carbonation volume=1 signifies that 1 L of CO2 gas is dissolved in 1 L of beverage. Carbon dioxide gas is added to either the water used to prepare beverages or to the syrup plus water blend, depending on the production apparatus type.

In both processes of carbonation, the pressurized CO2 gas is introduced into the system. The beverage carbonation is dependent on the temperature of the mixture and the pressure of the CO2. The beverage formulations can have varied concentrations of CO2. For instance, lemon-lime and cola beverages typically contain more carbonation than berry-flavored or citrus beverages in order to achieve the required taste and flavor.

1.2.6 Flavors

Flavor is the most significant quality factor of a carbonated drink. Flavors do not always make the same taste intensity and exact intended palate, since they can taste very different from one formula to another. Another aspect to consider is that the enjoyment of a certain drink might affect how much of it you drink. For example, research found that the flavor of sports drinks causes athletes to drink more than when consuming only water (Dennis et al., 2004). Consequently, drinks that are more palatable may be of benefit in increasing fluid consumption to avoid dehydration. Shelf life is another important issue since, over time, the flavor may intensify or decrease in intensity, or it may alter its character. Beverage flavoring appears to be a mysterious process at times; nevertheless, understanding the chemistry of a few ingredients goes a long way in the direction of success. The major part of flavors used in the CB industry are derived from natural sources. Most CBs encompass complex mixtures of diverse flavors formed in several commercial formulas, namely emulsions, alcoholic solutions, and concentrates.

1.2.6.1 Caffeine, [58-08-2], C8H10N4O2

Caffeine is usually added to cola beverages for its pleasantly bitter taste and used as a flavor additive in the soda industry. Cola beverages not containing caffeine are designated as caffeine-free. About 60% of soft drinks commercially available in the United States contain caffeine. Soda producers claim caffeine is added to CBs as a flavor enhancer. This caffeine flavor is dependent on the concentration used in the beverage. For instance, the concentration of caffeine in soft drinks may be below the detection threshold of flavor (Keast and Riddell, 2007).

1.2.6.2 Juice-Based Flavors

Fruit juices are concentrated for use in CB flavors. The final juice is concentrated between four and six times its initial strength by removing water under vacuum, after which it is pasteurized. Carbonation of natural health drinks could be a great approach to develop new products. Carbonation of natural juices may enrich the taste, aroma, and nutritional value of the beverages. Juicy fruits such as lemon-lime and amla can be readily fabricated into carbonated drinks to produce new fruit drinks with thirst-quenching and refreshing properties. Orange, lemon, grapefruit, grape, and apple are the most common fruit juices used in CBs.

1.2.6.3 Essential Oils or Volatile Components

Volatiles from plants are referred to as essential oils (EOs). An EO is essential because it contains the essence of the characteristic fragrance of that plant-derived oil.

There are EOs can be obtained by means of different systems, including the direct extraction of the oils from pressed fruits, distillation, or solvent extraction. EOs mainly comprise terpenes, oxygenated compounds, and sesquiterpenes. The main flavor components of EOs are the oxygenated compounds. EOs are extracted from herbs, fruits, flowers, spices, and roots.

Terpenes are typically readily oxidized, so they are often removed from the EO because they are insoluble, besides this, they may cause undesirable off-odors or flavors. One or more of the EOs for a given CB are often formulated. The particular aroma and taste of the carbonated drink is a result of the interactions of EOs with other sweeteners, flavorings, acids, and CO2. EOs choice and blend in the formulation of the beverages bases lies behind the so-called secret of a soda drink (Ameh et al., 2016).

1.2.6.4 Oleoresins

In contrast to EOs, oleoresins are enriched with less volatile lipophilic compounds, namely fats, waxes, resins, and fatty oils. These oily deposits, derived from the solvent used in herb extraction, may contain more distinguishing flavors than EOs. The extraction solvent eliminates almost all of the flavor constituents of the herb. By distilling the extractive solvent, the solution can then be reduced into an oily residue. Oleoresins of interest and mostly used in the CB industry are celery, ginger, and black pepper.

1.2.6.5 Alcoholic Solutions or Extracts

Alcoholic extracts are prepared by dissolving the flavor-bearing body in a solution of alcohol and water. They may require filtration using filter aids to remove any insoluble precipitates or oils that may form. Alcoholic extracts are clear solutions and are used in beverages that do not require a haze or cloudiness.

1.2.6.6 Fragrant Emulsions

An emulsion is the mixture of EOs with an emulsifying agent such as gum acacia or tragacanthin that is then homogenized. The homogenization process increases the emulsion stability by reducing the size of its particles. For attaining a long-term stabile emulsion, it is crucial that the oil phase particles be of a certain size, generally not exceeding 5 μm. The specific gravity (SG) of the emulsion is altered using glyceryl abietate (ester gum) or brominated vegetable oil as weighting agents. Adjustment is necessary to keep the emulsion in proper suspension in the beverage. If the emulsion’s SG is less than the final product (beverage) due to the density ratio, emulsion will drift to the top, making a neck ring—a common problem in the beverage industry. Emulsions naturally produce a relatively cloudy beverage.

One main feature of beverage emulsion is that it is very diluted, comprising at least 20 mg/L of a dispersed phase (oil) in the finished product, keeping in mind that it must remain physically stable for a relative long period of time (up to 12 months). For instance, a citrus flavor (EOs extracted from lemon or orange peels) is one of the most common flavors used in the formulation of soft drinks. Since they are oily constituents (immiscible in water), to solve such matter the drinks made up with these oils are blended to form what is called oil/water (O/W) emulsions.

1.2.6.7 Concentrates

These are blends of alcoholic solutions or emulsions with other fruit juice mixtures in order to yield a water-miscible solution. The concentrate may be straightforwardly used in syrup manufacturing, providing the needed consistent quality of the CB. The term concentrate actually applies to only one or more designated liquid parts that contain the EOs, colors, and other ingredients. The other part/parts are granular substances like buffers and preservatives which, during blending of the various parts, are combined as prescribed by the beverages’ labels. Concentrates of cola comprises EOs from cinnamon, coca, neroli, vanilla, nutmeg, lemon, orange, lime, and coriander. On the other hand, citrus carbonated drinks’ concentrates encompass citrus oils, where orange oil is dominant in orange concentrates while lime, lemon, and neroli oils are dominantly used in lemon-lime concentrates (Ameh et al., 2016).

1.2.6.8 Concentrated Flavor or Beverage Bases

Parent soft drink companies may provide franchise bottlers with concentrated flavor or beverage bases that contain all of the necessary ingredients, with some exceptions. In some cases, preservatives, nutritive sweeteners, and some nonnutritive sweeteners may be acquired by the franchise bottler or can be packaged separately.

1.2.7 Colorants

Colorants are either synthetically manufactured (artificial) or harvested from natural sources (natural). Synthetic colorants are certified additives by the FDA and are usually called primary colors which include shades of red, yellow, blue, and green. The certified primary colors are blended to form the secondary colors with/without the use of diluents. Acceptable food colorants can be designated as certified or as approved and consist of natural organic and synthetic inorganic colors used in particular applications in the food industry. Colorants can be in the form of powder, paste, granules, liquid, and others. Colorant determination includes stability, desired hue, and water solubility.

Colorants also are used in beverages to deliver an added sensory appeal. CBs may contain some natural colors resulting from the use of natural juices or flavors, but commonly require additional coloring agents such as a caramel color or other artificial colors.

Caramel color is used in most cola flavored CBs. It is manufactured through carefully controlled heat treatment of a good-grade carbohydrate source, usually dextrose, and a chemical catalyst such as food-grade bases, acids, or salts. Caramel is generally found in single or double-strength preparations according to the color intensity required. The double-strength formulation is used in most diet or low-calorie colas due to its lower caloric contribution than single-strength formulas.

1.2.7.1 Artificial and Natural Colorants

Water-soluble colorants are designated as federal food, drug, and cosmetic act (FD&C), followed by the color name and number, for example, FD&C Blue #2. They have a corresponding common name, for instance, indigotine. The colors differ in hue, solubility, and other properties, according to the intended application. Water-soluble colors include FD&C Blue #1, Blue #2, Green #3, Red #40, Yellow #5, and Yellow #6; see Table 1.3 for more