Hosea, Joel: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture

By Duane A. Garrett and Paul Ferris

THE NEW AMERICAN COMMENTARY is for the minister or Bible student who wants to understand and expound the Scriptures. Notable features include: * commentary based on THE NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION; * the NIV text printed in the body of the commentary; * sound scholarly methodology that reflects capable research in the original languages; * interpretation that emphasizes the theological unity of each book and of Scripture as a whole; * readable and applicable exposition.

• Language: English
• Publisher: BH Publishing Group
• Release date: Dec 15, 1997
• ISBN: 9781433675720

Duane A. Garrett

Duane A. Garrett is John R. Sampey Professor of Old Testament Interpretation and professor of biblical theology at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. His books include Song of Songs in the Word Biblical Commentary, Authority and Interpretation, Rethinking Genesis, and Hosea and Joel in the New American Commentary. He also serves as the general editor for The Archaeological Study Bible.

Book preview

Duane A. Garrett

General Editor

E. RAY CLENDENEN

Associate General Editor, OT

KENNETH A. MATHEWS

Associate General Editor, NT

DAVID S. DOCKERY

Consulting Editors

Old Testament

L. RUSS BUSH

DUANE A. GARRETT

LARRY L. WALKER

New Testament

RICHARD R. MELICK, JR.

PAIGE PATTERSON

CURTIS VAUGHAN

Production Editor

LINDA L. SCOTT

© 1997 • Broadman & Holman Publishers

All rights reserved

ISBN: 978-08054-0119-6

Dewey Decimal Classification: 224.6

Subject Heading: Bible. O.T. Hosea / Joel

Library of Congress Catalog Number: 98~17445

Printed in the United States of America

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4

Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the Holy Bible, New International Version (NlV), copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by pennission of Zondervan Bible Publishers. Quotations marked NRSV are from the New Revised Standard Version the Bible, copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Quotations marked REB are from The Revised English Bible Copyright © Oxford University Press and Cambridge University Press, 1989. Reprinted by permission.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Garrett, Duane A.

Hosea, Joel / Duane A. Garrett.

p. cm- (new American commentary; v. 19A)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8054-0119-9

1. Bible. O.T. Hoses-Commentaries. 2. Bible. O.T. Joel-

Commentaries. I. Tttle. II. Series.

BS1565.3.G38 1998

224' 6077

For Patty

With Love and Gratitude

הִנָּ֤ך יָפָה֙ רַעְיָתִ֔י הִנָּ֥ך יָפָ֖ה עֵינַ֥יִך יוֹנִ֣ים׃

Editors' Preface

God’s Word does not change. God’s world, however, changes in every generation. These changes, in addition to new findings by scholars and a new variety of challenges to the gospel message, call for the church in each generation to interpret and apply God’s Word for God’s people. Thus, THE NEW AMERICAN COMMENTARY is introduced to bridge the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. This new series has been designed primarily to enable pastors, teachers, and students to read the Bible with clarity and proclaim it with power.

In one sense THE NEW AMERICAN COMMENTARY is not new, for it represents the continuation of a heritage rich in biblical and theological exposition. The title of this forty-volume set points to the continuity of this series with an important commentary project published at the end of the nineteenth century called AN AMERICAN COMMENTARY, edited by Alvah Hovey. The older series included, among other significant contributions, the outstanding volume on Matthew by John A. Broadus, from whom the publisher of the new series, Broadman Press, partly derives its name. The former series was authored and edited by scholars committed to the infallibility of Scripture, making it a solid foundation for the present project. In line with this heritage, all NAC authors affirm the divine inspiration, inerrancy, complete truthfulness, and full authority of the Bible. The perspective of the NAC is unapologetically confessional and rooted in the evangelical tradition.

Since a commentary is a fundamental tool for the expositor or teacher who seeks to interpret and apply Scripture in the church or classroom, the NAC focuses on communicating the theological structure and content of each biblical book. The writers seek to illuminate both the historical meaning and contemporary significance of Holy Scripture.

In its attempt to make a unique contribution to the Christian community, the NAC focuses on two concerns. First, the commentary emphasizes how each section of a book fits together so that the reader becomes aware of the theological unity of each book and of Scripture as a whole. The writers, however, remain aware of the Bible’s inherently rich variety. Second, the NAC is produced with the conviction that the Bible primarily belongs to the church. We believe that scholarship and the academy provide an indispensable foundation for biblical understanding and the service of Christ, but the editors and authors of this series have attempted to communicate the findings of their research in a manner that will build up the whole body of Christ. Thus, the commentary concentrates on theological exegesis, while providing practical, applicable exposition.

THE NEW AMERICAN COMMENTARY’s theological focus enables the reader to see the parts as well as the whole of Scripture. The biblical books vary in content, context, literary type, and style. In addition to this rich variety, the editors and authors recognize that the doctrinal emphasis and use of the biblical books differs in various places, contexts, and cultures among God’s people. These factors, as well as other concerns, have led the editors to give freedom to the writers to wrestle with the issues raised by the scholarly community surrounding each book and to determine the appropriate shape and length of the introductory materials. Moreover, each writer has developed the structure of the commentary in a way best suited for expounding the basic structure and the meaning of the biblical books for our day. Generally, discussions relating to contemporary scholarship and technical points of grammar and syntax appear in the footnotes and not in the text of the commentary. This format allows pastors and interested laypersons, scholars and teachers, and serious college and seminary students to profit from the commentary at various levels. This approach has been employed because we believe that all Christians have the privilege and responsibility to read and seek to understand the Bible for themselves.

Consistent with the desire to produce a readable, up-to-date commentary, the editors selected the New International Version as the standard translation for the commentary series. The selection was made primarily because of the NIV’s faithfulness to the original languages and its beautiful and readable style. The authors, however, have been given the liberty to differ at places from the NIV as they develop their own translations from the Greek and Hebrew texts.

The NAC reflects the vision and leadership of those who provide oversight for Broadman Press, who in 1987 called for a new commentary series that would evidence a commitment to the inerrancy of Scripture and a faithfulness to the classic Christian tradition. While the commentary adopts an American name, it should be noted some writers represent countries outside the United States, giving the commentary an international perspective. The diverse group of writers includes scholars, teachers, and administrators from almost twenty different colleges and seminaries, as well as pastors, missionaries, and a layperson.

The editors and writers hope that THE NEW AMERICAN COMMENTARY will be helpful and instructive for pastors and teachers, scholars and students, for men and women in the churches who study and teach God’s Word in various settings. We trust that for editors, authors, and readers alike, the commentary will be used to build up the church, encourage obedience, and bring renewal to God’s people. Above all, we pray that the NAC will bring glory and honor to our Lord, who has graciously redeemed us and faithfully revealed himself to us in his Holy Word.

SOLI DEO GLORIA

The Editors

Author's Preface

I would like to express my deep appreciation for the support and encouragement I have received from my colleagues at Bethel Theological Seminary, and in particular from Dean Leland Eliason, as I have endeavored to complete this project. I owe a special debt of thanks to Mr. Philemon Yong for his proofreading efforts. I also am certainly grateful to Ray Clendenen of Broadman & Holman Publishers for having the confidence in me to entrust this assignment to me. Above all, my deepest thanks go to my family, and especially to my wife, Patty, for their love, support, and patience.

—Duane A. Garrett

Bethel Theological Seminary

Abbreviations

Bible Books

Apocrypha

Maps

Map: The Divided Monarchy

Selected Bibliography

Hosea Bibliography

Books and Commentaries

Allies, M. H., trans. St. John Damascene on Holy Images. London: Thomas Baker, 1898.

Andersen, F. I. and D. N. Freedman. Hosea: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB. New York: Doubleday, 1980.

Archer, G. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction. Chicago: Moody, 1974.

Bright, J. A History of Israel. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1981.

Brueggemann, W. Tradition for Crisis: A Study in Hosea. Richmond: John Knox, 1968.

Bullock, C. H. An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books. Chicago: Moody, 1986.

Buss, M. J. The Prophetic Word of Hosea: A Morphological Study. BZAW 111. Berlin: Verlag Alfred Töpelmann, 1969.

Calvin, J. Commentaries on the Twelve Minor Prophets. Grand Rapids: Baker, n.d.

Cassuto, U. Biblical and Oriental Studies. Translated by I. Abrahams. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1973.

Cohn, N. The Pursuit of the Millennium. London: Pimlico, 1957.

Davies, G. I. Hosea. NCBC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992.

Driver, S. R. An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. Reprint, Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1972.

Eaton, M. A. Hosea. Fearn, Great Britain: Christian Focus, 1996.

Fohrer, G. Introduction to the Old Testament. Nashville: Abingdon, 1968.

Freud, S. Moses and Monotheism. New York: Random House, 1953.

Garrett, D. A. An Analysis of the Hermeneutics of John Chrysostom's Commentary on Isaiah 1–8 with an English Translation. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen, 1992.

———. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs. NAC. Nashville: Broadman, 1993.

———. Rethinking Genesis. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991.

Harper, W. R. Amos and Hosea. ICC. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1936.

Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969.

Hill, D. Matthew. New Century Bible. London: Oliphants, 1972.

Holt, E. K. Prophesying the Past: The Use of Israel's History in the Book of Hosea. JSOTSup 194. Sheffield: Academic Press, 1994.

Hubbard, D. A. Hosea. TOTC. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1989.

Kaufmann, Y. The Religion of Israel. New York: Schocken, 1960.

Keil, C. F. Hosea. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, n.d.

Kidner, D. Love to the Loveless: The Message of Hosea. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1981, 109.

LaSor, W. S., D. A. Hubbard, and F. W. Bush. Old Testament Survey, 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.

Limburg, J. Hosea–Micah. Interpretation. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1988.

Lipshitz: A. The Commentary of Rabbi Ibn Ezra on Hosea: Edited from Six Manuscripts and Translated with an Introduction and Notes. New York: Sepher-Hermon Press, 1988.

Mays, J. L. Hosea: A Commentary. OTL. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969.

McComiskey, T. E. The Minor Prophets. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992.

McGrath, A. E. Luther's Theology of the Cross. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1985.

Merrill, E. H. Kingdom of Priests. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.

Morris, G. Prophecy, Poetry, and Hosea. JSOTSup 219. Sheffield: Academic Press, 1996.

Noll, M. A. The Scandal of the Evangelical Mind. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994.

Ortlund, R. C. Jr. Whoredom: God's Unfaithful Wife in Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996.

Östborn, G. Yahweh and Baal. Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1956.

Packer, J. I. Knowing God. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1973.

Sherwood, Y. The Prostitute and the Prophet: Hosea's Marriage in Literary–Theological Perspective. JSOTSup 212. Sheffield: Academic Press, 1996.

Smith, G. V. The Prophets as Preachers: An Introduction to the Hebrew Prophets. Nashville: Broadman, 1994.

Stuart, D. Hosea–Jonah. WBC. Dallas: Word, 1987.

Thiele, E. R. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, rev. ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983.

Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologiae: Latin Text and English Translation, Introductions, Notes, Appendices and Glossaries. Blackfriars Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.

Ward, J. Hosea: A Theological Commentary. New York: Harper & Row, 1966.

Wendland, E. R. The Discourse Analysis of Hebrew Prophetic Literature. Lewiston, N.Y.: Mellen Biblical Press, 1995.

Westermann, C. Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1967.

Wolff, H. W. Hosea. Hermeneia. Translated by G. Stansell. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974.

Worthing, M. W. God, Creation, and Contemporary Physics. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996.

Yee, G. Composition and Tradition in the Book of Hosea. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1985.

Articles and Journals

Ackroyd, P. R. Hosea and Jacob. VT 13 (1963): 245–59.

Arnold, P. M. Hosea and the Sin of Gibeah. CBQ 51 (1989): 447–60.

Black, M. The Theological Appropriation of the Old Testament by the New Testament. SJT 39 (1986): 1–17.

Boudreau, G. R. Hosea and the Pentateuchal Traditions. JSOTSup 173 (1993): 121–32.

Buss, M. J. Comedy and Tragedy in Hosea. Semeia 32 (1984): 71–82.

———. Mari Prophecy and Hosea, JBL 88 (1969): 338.

Coote, R. B. Coote, Hos 14:8: ‘They who are Filled with Grain shall Live,’ JBL 93 (1974): 161–73.

———. Hosea XII. VT 21 (1971): 389–402.

Crane, W. E. Crane, The Prophecy of Hosea. BSac 89 (1932): 480–94.

Daniels, D. R. Daniels, Is There a ‘Prophetic Lawsuit’ Genre? ZAW 99 (1987): 339–60.

Day, J. Pre-Deuteronomic Allusions to the Covenant in Hosea and Psalm LXXVIII. VT 36 (1986): 1–12.

DeRoche, M. The Reversal of Creation in Hosea. VT 31 (1981): 400–409.

Dijk-Hemmes, F. van. The Imagination of Power and the Power of Imagination: An Intertextual Analysis of Two Biblical Love Songs. JSOT 44 (1989): 75–88.

Driver, G. R. Linguistic and Textual Problems: Minor Prophets. I. JTS 39 (1938): 154–166.

Eakin, F. E., Jr. Yahwism and Baalism Before the Exile. JBL 84 (1965): 407–14.

Edelman, D. "The Meaning of qiṭṭēr." VT 35 (1985): 395–404.

Ehrlich, C. S. The Text of Hosea 1:9. JBL 104 (1985): 13–19.

Eidevall, G. Lions and Birds as Literature. Some Notes on Isaiah 31 and Hosea 11. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 7 (1993): 78–87.

Ellison, H. L. The Message of Hosea in the Light of His Marriage. EvQ 41 (1969): 3–9.

Emmerson, G. I. A Fertility Goddess in Hosea IV 17–19? VT 24 (1974): 492–97.

Eslinger, L. M. Hosea 12:5a and Genesis 32:29: A Study in Inner Biblical Exegesis. JSOT 18 (1980) 91–9.

Farr, G. The Concept of Grace in the book of Hosea. ZAW 70 (1958): 98–107.

Franklyn, P. N. Oracular Cursing in Hosea 13. HAR 11 (1987): 69–80.

Freedman, D. N. Headings in the Books of the Eighth Century Prophets. AUSS 25 (1987): 9–26.

Friedman, M. A. Israel's Response in Hosea 2:17b: ‘You are my Husband.’ JBL 99 (1980): 199–204.

Fuller, R. A Critical Note on Hosea 12:10 and 13:4. RB 98 (1991): 343–57.

Gertner, M. An Attempt at an Interpretation of Hosea XII. VT 10 (1960): 272–84.

Ginsberg, H. L. Hosea's Ephraim, More Fool than Knave: A New Interpretation of Hosea 12:1–14. JBL 80 (1961): 339–47.

Good, E. M. Hosea 5:8–6:6: An Alternative to Alt. JBL 85 (1966): 273–86.

Gordis, R. Hosea's Marriage and Message. HUCA 25 (1954): 9–35.

Gordon, C. H. Hos 2.4–5 in the Light of New Semitic Inscriptions. ZAW 54 (1936): 277–80.

Greenburg, M. Ezekiel 16: A Panorama of Passions. In Love and Death in the Ancient Near East. Edited by J. H. Marks and R. M. Good. Guilford, Conn.: Four Quarters, 1987, 143–50.

Grossberg, D. Multiple Meaning: Part of a Compound Literary Device in the Hebrew Bible. East Asia Journal of Theology 4 (1986): 77–86.

Hess, R. S. "ādām as ‘Skin’ and ‘Earth’: An Examination of Some Proposed Meanings in Biblical Hebrew." TynBul 39 (1988): 143–49.

Holladay, W. L. Chiasmus: The Key to Hosea XII 3–6. VT 16 (1966): 53–64.

Houston, J. Knowing God: The Transmission of Reformed Theology. in Doing Theology for the People of God. Edited by D. Lewis and A. McGrath (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1996), 223–44.

Huffmon, H. B. The Covenant Lawsuit in the Prophets. JBL 78 (1959): 285–95.

Irvine, S. A. Irvine, Politics and Prophetic Commentary in Hosea 8:8–10. JBL 114 (1995): 292–94.

Janzen, J. G. Metaphor and Reality in Hosea 11. Semeia 24 (1982): 7–44

Johansen, J. H. The Prophet Hosea: His Marriage and Message. JETS 14 (1971): 179–84.

Kaiser, W. J., Jr. Inner Biblical Exegesis as a Model for Bridging the ‘Then’ and ‘Now’ Gap: Hos 12:1–6. JETS 28 (1985): 33–46.

Krause, D. A Blessing Cursed: The Prophet's Prayer for Barren Womb and Dry Breasts in Hosea 9. In Reading Between the Texts: Intertextuality and the Hebrew Bible. Edited by D. N. Fewell. Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1992, 191–202.

Kruger, Paul A. Israel, the Harlot, JNSL 11 (1983): 107–16.

Lundbom, J. R. Contentious Priests and Contentious People in Hosea IV 1–10. VT 36 (1986): 52–70.

———. Poetic Structure and Prophetic Rhetoric in Hosea. VT 29 (1979): 300–308.

Lust, J. Freud, Hosea, and the Murder of Moses: Hosea 12. ETL 65 (1989): 81–93.

Malchow, B. V. Contrasting Views of Nature in the Hebrew Bible. Dialog 26 (1987): 40–43.

May, H. G. An Interpretation of the Names of Hosea's Children. JBL 55 (1936): 285–91.

Mazor, Y. Hosea 5.1–3: Between Compositional Rhetoric and Rhetorical Composition. JSOT 45 (1989): 119–20.

McCarthy, D. J. Hosea XII 2: Covenant by Oil. VT 14 (1964): 215–21.

McComiskey, T. E. Hosea 9:13 and the Integrity of the Masoretic Tradition in the Prophecy of Hosea. JETS 33 (1990): 155–60.

McKay, H. A. Jacob Makes It across the Jabbok: An Attempt to Solve the Success/ Failure Ambivalence in Israel's Self-consciousness. JSOT 38 (1987): 3–13.

McKenzie, J. L. Divine Passion in Osee. CBQ 17 (1955): 287–99.

McKenzie, S. L. The Jacob Tradition in Hosea 12:4–5. VT 36 (1983): 311–22.

Nicholson, E. W. Problems in Hosea VIII 13. VT 16 (1966): 355–58.

North, F. S. Solution of Hosea's Marital Problems by Critical Analysis. JNES 16 (1957): 128–30.

O'Connor, M. The Pseudo-sorites in Hebrew Verse. In Perspectives on Language and Text. Edited by E. W. Conrad and E. G. Newing. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1987. 239–53.

———. The Pseudosorites: A Type of Paradox in Hebrew Verse. JSOTSup 40. Sheffield: Academic Press, 1987, 161–72.

Olyan, S. M. " ‘In the Sight of Her Lovers’: On the Interpretation of nablūt in Hos 2,12." BZNS 36 (1992): 255–61.

Pisano, S. ‘Egypt’ in the Septuagint Text of Hosea. In Tradition of the Text. Edited by G. J. Norton and S. Pisano. Fribourg, Switzerland: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Göttingen, 1991, 301–8.

Ringgren, H. The Marriage Motif in Israelite Religion. In Ancient Israelite Religion. Edited by P. D. Miller, Jr., P. D. Hanson, and S. D. McBride. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987, 421–28.

Setel, T. D. Prophets and Pornography: Female Sexual Imagery in Hosea. In Feminist Interpretation of the Bible. L. Russell. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1985, 86–95.

Tångberg, K. A. ‘I Am Like an Evergreen Fir; From Me Comes Your Fruit’: Notes on Meaning and Symbolism in Hosea 14,9b. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 2 (1989): 81–93.

———. "A Note on pištî in Hosea II, 7, 11." VT 27 (1977): 222–24.

Vasholz, R. I. Gomer—Chaste or Not? Presbyterion 19 (1993): 48–49.

Vogels, W. Hosea's Gift to Gomer (Hos 3,2). Bib 69 (1988): 412–21.

Waterman, L. Hosea, Chapters 1–3, in Retrospect and Prospect. JNES 14 (1955): 100–109.

Watson, W. G. E. Reflexes of Akkadian Incantations in Hosea. VT 34 (1984): 242–47.

Weems, R. J. Gomer: Victim of Violence or Victim of Metaphor? Sem 47 (1989): 87–104.

Whitt, W. D. The Divorce of Yahweh and Asherah in Hos 2,4–7.12 ff. Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 6 (1992): 31–67.

———. The Jacob Traditions in Hosea and their Relation to Genesis. ZAW 91 (1991): 18–43.

Wijngaards, J. Death and Resurrection in Covenantal Context (Hos. VI 2). VT 17 (1967): 226–39.

Wyrtzen, D. B.The Theological Center of Hosea. BibSac 141 (1984): 315–29.

Joel Bibliography

Books and Commentaries

Ahlstrom, G. W. Joel and the Temple Cult of Jerusalem. VTSup 21. Leiden: Brill, 1971.

Allen, L. C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah and Micah. NICOT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976.

Bergler, S. Joel als Schriftinterpret. Beitrage zur des Alten Testaments und des antiken Judentums 16. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1988.

Bewer, J. A. Joel. In A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Micah, Zephaniah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Obadiah and Joel. ICC. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1911.

Bodenheimer, F. S. Note on Invasions of Palestine by Rare Locusts. In Israel Exploration Journal Reader. Edited by H. M. Orlinsky. New York: KTAV, 1981.

Bock, D. L. Evidence from Acts. In A Case for Premillennialism: A New Consensus. Edited by D. K. Campbell and J. L. Townsend. Chicago: Moody, 1992.

———. The Reign of the Lord Christ. In Dispensationalism, Israel and the Church: The Search for Definition. Edited by C. A. Blaising and D. L. Bock. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992.

———. Use of the Old Testament in the New. In Foundations for Biblical Interpretation. Edited by D. S. Dockery, K. A. Mathews, and R. B. Sloan. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994.

Brown, R. E. The Gospel according to John. AB. New York: Doubleday, 1966.

Bruce, F. F. The Book of Acts. NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1954.

Calvin, John, A Commentary on the Prophet Joel. Translated by J. Owen. London: Banner of Truth, 1958.

Cathcart, K. J. and Gordon, R. P. The Targum of the Minor Prophets. The Aramaic Bible 14. Wilmington: Michael Glazier, 1989.

Collins, J. J. Teacher and Messiah? The One Who Will Teach Righteousness at the End of Days. In The Community of the Renewed Covenant. Edited by E. Ulrich and J. Vanderkam. Notre Dame: University Press, 1994.

Crenshaw, J. L. Joel. AB. New York: Doubleday, 1995.

Dillard, R. B. and T. Longman. An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994.

Dillard, R. B. Joel. In The Minor Prophets. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991.

Driver, S. R. An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament. Reprinted. Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1972.

Ellis, E. E. The Old Testament in Early Christianity. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991.

Evans, C. A. Luke. NIBC. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1990.

———. The Prophetic Setting of the Pentecost Sermon. ZNW 74 (1983): 148–50.

Finley, T. J. Joel, Obadiah, Amos. WEC. Chicago: Moody, 1990.

Fohrer, G. Introduction to the Old Testament. Translated by D. E. Green. Nashville: Abingdon, 1968.

Garrett, D. A. An Analysis of the Hermeneutics of John Chrysostrom's Commentary on Isaiah 1–8 with an English Translation. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen, 1992.

———. Angels and the New Spirituality. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995.

Goppelt, L. Typos: The Typological Interpretation of the Old Testament in the New. Translated by D. H. Madvig. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1982.

Groningen, G. Van. Messianic Revelation in the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker 1990.

Heater, H. Jr. Evidence from Joel and Amos. In A Case for Premillennialism: A New Consensus. Edited by D. K. Campbell and J. L. Townsend. Chicago: Moody, 1992.

Hiebert, T. Joel, Book of. ABD 3. 873–80.

Holladay, W. L. The Root subh in the Old Testament. Leiden: Brill, 1958.

Hubbard, D. A. Joel and Amos. TOTC. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1989.

Hvidberg, F. F. Weeping and Laughter in the Old Testament. Leiden: Brill, 1962.

Kapelrud, A. Joel Studies. Uppsala: A. B. Lundequistska Bokhandeln, 1948.

Keil, C. F. The Minor Prophets. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, n.d.

Krodel, G. A. Acts. Augsburg Commentary on the New Testament. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1986.

———. The Sensus Plenior in Biblical Interpretation. In Scripture, Tradition and Interpretation. Edited by W. W. Gasque and W. S. LaSor. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.

Limburg, J. Hosea–Micah. IBC. Atlanta: John Knox, 1988.

Longnecker, R. N. The Acts of the Apostles. EBC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1981.

Loretz, O. Regenritual und Jahwetag im Joelbuch. Ugaritisch–Biblische Literatur 4. Altenberge: CIS, 1986.

Moo, D. J. The Problem of Sensus Plenior. In Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon. Edited by D. A. Carson and J. D. Woodbridge. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986.

Motyer, J. A. The Prophecy of Isaiah. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993.

Ogden, G. S. and R. R. Deutsch. Joel. In A Promise of Hope—A Call to Obedience. ITC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987.

Patterson, R. D. Joel. EBC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985.

Pfeiffer, R. H. Introduction to the Old Testament. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1941.

Poythress, V. S. Understanding Dispensationalists. Phillipsburg, N.J.: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1994.

Prinsloo, W. S. The Theology of the Book of Joel. BZAW. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Sailhamer, J. H. Introduction to Old Testament Theology. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995.

Saucy, R. L. The Case for Progressive Dispensationalism. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993.

Silva, M. Has the Church Misread the Bible? Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987.

Smith, G. V. The Prophets as Preachers. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1994.

Stuart, D. Hosea–Jonah. WBC. Dallas: Word, 1987.

Thompson, J. A. Joel. IB. Nashville: Abingdon, 1956, 6:733.

———. Repetition in the Prophecy of Joel. In On Language, Culture, and Religion: In Honor of Eugene A. Nida. Edited by M. Black and W. A. Smalley. The Hague: Mouton, 1974.

Walvoord, J. The Holy Spirit. Findlay, Ohio: Dunham, 1954.

Wolff, H. W. Joel and Amos. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977.

Zehnle, R. F. Peter's Pentecost Discourse. SBLMS 15. New York: Abingdon, 1971.

Articles and Journals

Andinach, P. R. The Locusts in the Message of Joel. VT 42 (1992): 433–41.

Child, B. S. The Enemy from the North and the Chaos Tradition. JBL 78 (1959): 187–98.

Dahood, M. The Four Cardinal Points in Psalm 75,7 and Joel 2,20. Bib 52 (1971): 397.

Frankfort, T. Le כִי de Joel I 12. VT 10 (1960): 445–48.

Garrett, D. A. The Structure of Joel. JETS 28 (1985): 289–97.

Hosch, H. The Concept of Prophetic Time in Joel, JETS 15 (1972): 31–38.

Hurowitz, V. A. Joel's Locust Plague in Light of Sargon II's Hymn to Nanaya. JBL 112 (1993): 597–603.

LaSor, W. S. Prophecy, Inspiration and Sensus Plenior. TynBul 29 (1978): 49–60.

Mallon, E. D. A Stylistic Analysis of Joel 1:10–12. CBQ 45 (1983): 537–48.

Marcus, D. Nonrecurring Doublets in Joel. CBQ 56 (1994): 56–57, 65–66.

Mariottini, C. F. Joel 3:10 [H 4:10]: ‘Beat Your Plowshares into Swords. Perspectives in Religious Studies 14 (1987): 125–30.

Miller, P. D., Jr. The Divine Council and the Prophetic Call to War. VT 8 (1968): 100–107.

Myers, J. M. Some Considerations Bearing on the Date of Joel. ZAW 74 (1962): 177–95.

Nestle, E. Miscellen: I. Joel I, 17. ZAW 20 (1900): 164–65.

Ogden, G. S. Joel 4 and Prophetic Responses to National Laments. JSOT 26 (1983): 97–106.

———. The Unity of the Book of Joel. ZAW 104 (1992): 66–67.

Rabinowitz, I. The Guides of Righteousness. VT 8 (1958).

Rad, G. von. The Origin of the Concept of the Day of Yahweh. JSS 4 (1959): 97–108.

Roth, C. The Teacher of Righteousness and the Prophecy of Joel. VT 13 (1963): 91–95.

Sellers, O. R. Stages of Locust in Joel. AJSL 52 (1935–36): 81–85.

———. A Possible Old Testament Reference to the Teacher of Righteousness. IEJ 5 (1955): 93–95.

Sprengling, M. Joel 1, 17a. JBL 38 (1919): 129–41.

Stephenson, F. R. The Date of the Book of Joel. VT 19 (1969): 224–29.

Thompson, J. A. Joel's Locusts in the Light of Near Eastern Parallels. JNES 14 (1955): 52–55.

Treves, M. The Date of Joel. VT 7 (1957): 149–56.

VanGemeren, W. A. The Spirit of Restoration. WTJ 50 (1988): 81–102.

Weingreen, J. The Title Moreh Sedek. JSS 6 (1961): 162–174.

Wenham, G. J. Betulah: ‘A Girl of Marriageable Age.’ VT 22 (1972): 326–48.

Hosea

Introduction Outline

The Historical Background of the Book of Hosea

The Authorship and Compilation of Hosea

The Hebrew Text of Hosea

The Imagery, Style, and Literary Background of Hosea

Hosea and the Torah

The Style and Imagery of Hosea

The Structure of Hosea

A Survey of Analyses of the Structure of Hosea

Introduction

W. R. Harper

M. J. Buss

H. W. Wolff

G. Yee

F. I. Andersen and D. N. Freedman

T. E. McComiskey, J. L. Mays, D. A. Hubbard, and J. M. Ward

A New Proposal Regarding the Structure of Hosea

The Message of Hosea

Hosea is not an easy book. It begins with a prophet receiving a command to marry a prostitute and promptly describes the births of his three children, each of whom is given a bizarre but significant name. From here the book swiftly plunges into a maze of warnings, microsermons, poems, and laments, and through them all it swiftly and evasively alludes to biblical texts and incidents, mixes metaphors, and changes topics, seemingly at random. To say that the Hebrew is perplexing sounds like a scholar's whine; the English reader might better appreciate how precarious the task of interpreting Hosea really is by comparing how the various versions have handled the book (and even that only tells a small part of the story).

But though Hosea is a difficult book, it is also a great book. It is like a tree whose roots go down deep into the Torah and whose branches bear the fruit of a discourse that became the grammar of biblical prophecy. Many of the themes, and much of the vocabulary, of the great literary prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel originate in Hosea. It also is a book that jolts the reader; it refuses to be domesticated and made conventional. It does comfort the afflicted, but it most surely afflicts the comfortable. It is as startling in its presentation of sin as it is surprising in its stubborn certainty of grace. It is as blunt as it is enigmatic. It is a book to be experienced, and the experience is with God.

1. The Historical Background of the Book of Hosea

We know virtually nothing about Hosea himself. We know nothing of his ancestral family beyond the name of his father, Beeri. We do not know where his home was, what events were formative in his early life, or how he was educated. His remarkable familiarity with the Torah, Joshua, and Judges suggests that he was thoroughly trained in the Scriptures (as they existed in his day). Similarly, the self-consciously enigmatic nature of his book¹ suggests a high degree of intelligence and a subtle mind. We do not know how close he was to the political events of his lifetime. Was he, like Isaiah, on familiar terms with members of the aristocracy and the central government, or was he outside the circles of power? We do not know how or where he died. He became a prophet prior to his marriage because it was by divine command that he chose the woman he did, but his marriage to Gomer may have been the first act of his prophetic career (see commentary at 1:2). This, combined with the fact that 1:1 implies that his ministry lasted quite a long time, suggests that he became a prophet at a reasonably young age.²

We know more about the age in which he lived. Hosea 1:1 tells us that he ministered during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and during the reign of Jeroboam son of Jehoash king of Israel. Evidence suggests that Hosea ministered during the latter part of Jeroboam's reign (793–753 b.c.) and for some years following. The title verse says that he prophesied as late as the reign of Hezekiah of Judah (716–686) b.c. Assuming that Hosea began his ministry fairly late in Jeroboam II's reign and ended fairly early in Hezekiah's reign, we conclude that his prophetic career went from about 760 to 710 b.c., or roughly fifty years. The fact that he lived into Hezekiah's reign is especially significant because it tells us that he lived to see the fall of Samaria (722 b.c.). It is not unreasonable to assume that he ended his days in Hezekiah's Jerusalem and that his book was preserved there, but we have no direct evidence to that effect.

Jeroboam II, who reigned from about 790 to 750 b.c., came to power while Israel's two enemies to the north, Syria and Assyria, were weakened by internal conflicts. Jeroboam II was a long-lived and capable ruler; Amos 6:13 alludes to two victories won under his reign.³ After the death of Ben-Hadad II of Syria, Jeroboam extended the domain of Israel as far north as the city of Damascus itself (2 Kgs 14:25–26).⁴ Renewed success on the battlefield restored the prosperity of the nation as well; the economy boomed. But this was to be the Indian Summer of Israel. Dark days were ahead.

Even in Jeroboam's lifetime evidence of social trouble was apparent. A two-class system developed; the lower class suffered increasingly under oppression and poverty while the upper class enjoyed power and excess. After the political stability afforded by Jeroboam II's long life, moreover, Israel entered a time of political chaos. Soon after his death the situation approached anarchy; almost every king of Israel died by assassination at the hands of his successor. Israel's internal weakness, combined with the rise of an invigorated Assyria under Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 b.c.) and his successors Shalmaneser V (727–722 b.c.) and Sargon II (722–705 b.c.), sealed the fate of the Northern Kingdom.

Jeroboam II was succeeded by his son Zechariah (753 b.c.). Almost immediately, however, Zechariah was struck down by the assassin Shallum. This ended the dynasty of Jehu (841–814 b.c.). Shallum had little chance to savor his moment, however, for after a single month he was in turn assassinated by Menahem (752–742 b.c.). Israel's downward spiral continued under his reign; Menahem's most noteworthy act was to send a thousand talents of silver to Tiglath-pileser III (Pul) of Assyria in return for Assyria's support for his claim to the throne (2 Kgs 15:17–22). Menahem's son Pekahiah succeeded him, but his reign also was cut short by assassination. Pekah, son of Remaliah, a high-ranking military officer, killed him after Pekahiah had held the throne for only about two years (741–739 b.c.).

The chronology of Pekah's reign is difficult because 2 Kgs 15:27 says he reigned for twenty years. This is not possible if one dates the beginning of his reign to around 739 b.c. because the kingdom itself ended in 722. It may be that the Kings text has a scribal error, or it may be that Pekah headed a rival government beginning around 752 b.c. and that with the murder of Pekahiah he became sole monarch. Either way, his reign lasted until about 732 b.c. Unlike Menahem, Pekah was hostile to the Assyrian Empire (this may explain why he led a rival government). After he had seized power, Pekah, along with Rezin of Syria, formed a coalition aimed at resisting the growing power of Assyria. Jotham of Judah refused to join the coalition, as did his successor, Ahaz. The Syro-Ephraimite coalition could not risk having a hostile force in their rear and invaded the south with an intention of replacing Ahaz with a certain ben Tabeel as a puppet king (Isa 7:6). Ahaz appealed to Tiglath-pileser for aid, and the Assyrian king quickly routed the forces of the coalition. Hoshea son of Elah then assassinated Pekah and took the crown for himself. He saved Samaria from destruction by a hasty submission to Assyria, but he also carried on secret negotiations with Egypt for support against Assyria. When this treachery was discovered, Assyria, now under Shalmaneser V, invaded the land and took Hoshea captive. Samaria held out for about two years, during which time Shalmaneser died; but his successor, Sargon II, completed the destruction of Israel's capital city. According to Assyrian records, 27,290 Israelite citizens were deported to Mesopotamia.

One cannot easily correlate any text in Hosea with any known event of history. Some scholars assert that Hosea 5 reflects the period of the Syro-Ephraimite war (735–733 b.c.).⁵ This is unlikely. Isaiah 7 shows that Judah was on the defensive, desperately seeking allies in this war. In Hosea, Judah is the aggressor (5:10). The Hosea text may refer to border disputes in the reign of Uzziah of Judah,⁶ but even this is not certain (see commentary). In general, however, Hosea describes the volatile political situation following the death of Jeroboam II, a chaotic time in which power changed hands rapidly and self-styled kings made claims of royalty that were as hollow as they were ignored by the people (e.g., 7:3–7; 8:4; 10:3). Probably most of Hosea's extant messages come from the last three decades of Israel's history.

2. The Authorship and Compilation of Hosea

Most scholars today affirm that the bulk of the book comes from the sermons of Hosea himself, but many attribute the actual writing of the book to a group of disciples.⁷ The notion that the prophetic books stem from schools of disciples, though common, is not founded on solid evidence. We know from the example of Jeremiah 36 that prophets sometimes employed scribes, but that text also informs us that the prophets had a direct hand in producing written versions of their proclamations. In addition, the Book of Hosea, albeit a text that is notoriously difficult to analyze and seemingly a series of fragments, is best understood when treated as a literary work, a complex whole, and not as an anthology of many separate parts. There is no reason to doubt that the messages of Hosea come from the prophet himself.

Many scholars, even those who believe that the bulk of the book is from Hosea, argue that the book has a significant number of redactional interpolations. Interpreters commonly attribute the references to Judah to secondary hands. Some say that these are from two separate redactions of the book; the first was a pro-Judah redaction designed to distance Judah from the condemnation pronounced against Israel (e.g., 1:7; 3:5). The second was a redaction that took oracles of condemnation originally delivered against Israel and redirected them toward Judah (e.g., 5:5; 6:11).⁸ Evidence for this redaction history is minimal; it stems more from a century-old habit of scholarship than from significant anomalies in the text. Hosea regarded the Davidic king in Jerusalem the legitimate one anointed of Yahweh and hoped that Judah would reject the apostasy of their northern counterparts (e.g., 4:15). He also knew that the house of David would be the source of Israel's salvation (3:5). Nevertheless, he understood that apostasy was deeply rooted in Judah and knew that harrowing days lay ahead for the south as well. There is nothing here that demands even one Judah redaction, much less two. Furthermore, references to Judah can often be shown to be integral to the structure or message of the texts in which they appear.⁹

A few scholars maintain that the optimistic oracles do not stem from Hosea, but this comes from a tendency to regard the prophets as incapable of delivering complex messages. The selfsame prophet could give messages of both doom and hope. In Hosea's case the sayings of condemnation and the sayings of salvation are so thoroughly intertwined, and the style is so self-evidently uniform, that the notion that the salvific statements are secondary should be abandoned.¹⁰

In short, the Book of Hosea should be treated as a literary unity and not as a pastiche of short sayings and messages redacted by disciples. No text is demonstrably secondary, and none should be treated as such. The book is extremely difficult, but uniformly so, and attempts to demarcate secondary material frequently have as their true aim the removal of texts that contradict the theses of modern scholars. The prophet probably used a scribe, but there is no reason to suppose that anyone other than Hosea is responsible for the contents of this book.

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3. The Hebrew Text of Hosea

Hosea contains possibly the most difficult Hebrew in the Bible (although many scholars would give that distinction to Job). Hosea is frequently elliptical, at times apparently ungrammatical, and often contains passing allusions to historical incidents and other texts of the Bible that are almost bewildering. Its logic is sometimes paradoxical. It also contains a fairly high number of obscure or rare words, the meanings of which scholars must struggle to recover.¹¹ The difficulty of the Hebrew of Hosea naturally makes it inviting territory for those who wish to invade it with an arsenal of techniques for emendation.¹² Critical scholars of a previous generation believed that the text had been severely corrupted¹³ and were sublimely confident in their ability to recover the text, but few scholars today feel free to rearrange, delete, and modify Hosea at will.¹⁴ For the most part, our confusion with the text of Hosea is a matter both of our ignorance of his dialect and of the intentionally elliptical and obscure nature of the book. It is not in most cases a matter of the text having been badly transmitted.¹⁵

On the other hand, some emendation may be necessary. The versions and manuscripts contain enough divergence to convince us that at least some passages may have suffered in transmission. In a few texts emendations commend themselves so obviously or have such strong manuscript or versional support that an inflexible commitment to the Masoretic tradition is unreasonable.

Nevertheless, it is easy to resort to emendation too quickly. The problem, simply, is this: the more one emends, the less one can claim to be interpreting the Book of Hosea. The more one emends a passage, the less likely it is that one's interpretation of the text will be persuasive. Many proposed emendations