The Enigmatic Brain Reveals

By Dewan Jaglul

This book is a result of my childhood questions about myself as I wondered how did I appear to be myself suddenly with hardly any past recollection and I wondered about my understanding of my own experiences in my life and things of that nature. I wanted to look beyond the Creators wish part, a prevalent mode of resignation of the thought process, to find a logical and scientific explanation by myself through reading. Eventually I developed the wisdom that the answer lies in the understanding of the brain. When I realized that it is my brain that is somehow generating all my experiences for me, it led to a pretty engrossing experience trying to understand it since.

Since this is a book about the brain, I thought it was necessary to discuss the fundamental aspect of its structure. However, I only laid a gross picture with broad strokes only after briefly discussing the highlights of the history of evolution of the brain. Then I tried to address some of the big questions like the consciousness and the generation of the mind and self from a neurological point of view. I went ahead and discussed the mechanism of some of the attributes of self as well.

Some of the functional aspects are elucidated as how we fall in love or how we navigate directions and so forth. Computation is the basis by which the brain derives its conclusions. The plasticity of the brain enables us to learn new skills. The genetic aspect cannot be overemphasized. I have included some fascinating data that has recently been found out in these regards.

Psychiatric illnesses always fascinated me. I have discussed the genetic basis and pathophysiology of a few of them, like Depression, Alzheimers disease, etc.

The whole book is written on the basis of the latest findings by dedicated professionals. Here I am like a collector who has put all this in a concise deliberation to share my own understandings regarding what it takes for each of us to be the way we are.

• Language: English
• Publisher: AuthorHouse
• Release date: Nov 1, 2013
• ISBN: 9781491808641

Dewan Jaglul

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© 2013 by Dewan Jaglul. All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without the written permission of the author.

Published by AuthorHouse 12/03/2013

ISBN: 978-1-4918-0865-8 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-4918-0866-5 (hc)

ISBN: 978-1-4918-0864-1 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013914713

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Contents

Prologue   Introduction and Background

Chapter I   Unlocking the Enigmatic Brain

Chapter II   A Journey through Time

Chapter III   Gross Structures of the Brain

Chapter IV   Neurons and Synapses

Chapter V   The Real Reason for having a Brain

Chapter VI   The Divided Brain

Chapter VII   The Mystery of Consciousness

Chapter VIII   To Sleep, perchance to Dream

Chapter IX   Probing Self

Chapter X   The Beginning of the Self

Chapter XI   The Emergence of Self

Chapter XII   Self, having Explored

Chapter XIII   The Development of the Mind

Chapter XIV   A Glimpse of the Mind

Chapter XV   The Chemistry of Love

Chapter XVI   Neurobiology of Emotion

Chapter XVII   The Artistic Creative Brain

Chapter XVIII   Knowing Me, Knowing You

Chapter XIX   The Empathic Brain

Chapter XX   The Optimistic Self

Chapter XXI   Of Spatial Cognitions

Chapter XXII   The Plasticity of the Brain

Chapter XXIII   The Belief Mechanism

Chapter XXIV   The Computing Brain

Chapter XXV   Genetic Basis of Behavior

Chapter XXVI   A Brief Story of Nicotine Addiction

Chapter XXVII   The Pathway of Addiction

Chapter XxVIII   Perception of Supernatural Experiences

Chapter XXIX   Delusion and Hallucination

Chapter XXX   Major (Unipolar) Depression

Chapter XXXI   Bipolar Disorder

Chapter XXXII   Schizophrenia

Chapter XXXIII   Alzheimer’s Disease

Chapter XXXIV   Parkinson’s Disease

Epilogue   The Afterthought

Dedication

1.jpg

To my beloved parents,

late Professor Dr. Diwan Sirajul Islam

and Mrs. Hashmat Ara Begum,

especially to my mom

for her unwavering belief

in my ability to learn

that shaped my curious mind.

–Dewan Jaglul

PROLOGUE

Introduction

W hen the time comes to look for the deepest mystery of the Universe, there is no need to look for clues far out into the space. Its location is actually very close to us, housed right inside our heads. It is indeed the brain. Nothing in the world challenges the human mind nearly as much as the quest to understand this mystifying organ does. I cannot help but quote Dr. V. S. Ramachandran, an eminent neuroscientist from the University of California, San Diego who has spoken so eloquently in this context. He said, Here is this three pound mass of jelly that you can hold in the palm of your hands and it can contemplate the vastness of interstellar space, it can contemplate the meaning of infinity and it can contemplate itself contemplating the meaning of infinity. There is this peculiar recursive quality that we call self-awareness is the Holy Grail of neuroscience. Hopefully, someday we will understand it all.

The brain is an intriguing organ, to say the least. It represents us in the most fundamental way. It makes it possible for us anything we choose to do that even includes reading this sentence. It is the engine, which runs our thoughts, projects our personalities, controls the internal environment of the body and the list goes on and on. However, while veering into a live brain it looks as though it is not doing anything at all. Perhaps that is the reason why it had failed to gather any human respect, in spite of generating a mind that has always been curious to learn and explore, as can be evidenced from the earliest recorded history of human civilization. This disregard had been featured during the preparation of mummies by the priests of the Old Kingdom (2686 BC–2181 BC) of the Ancient Egypt, as they drew the brain out through the nose and threw it away. They would however, preserve the heart placing it in a sacred jar to accompany the mummy thinking it would be necessary for the mummy’s passage to its afterlife. Having had such an inauspicious beginning, what followed spanning the subsequent millennia can be summarized as a variety of speculations by the wise men about the structure and function of the brain. Some of those speculations were more brilliant than the others. Around the middle of the 19th century, the appearance of Microscope finally opened the window for gaining a proper understanding of how the brain can be an important structure after all. Continued advancements and modifications of microscopes generated increasingly higher resolutions that enabled the subsequent researchers to explore newer horizons. Despite having the knowledge about the brain expanded quite a bit as can be evidenced by the vast amount of data that have been generated during the last hundred years, yet we are far from the luxury of a comprehensive understanding, to say the least. That is why, the recent President Obama’s $3 billion Brain Mapping Project (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/18/Science/project-seeks-to-buildmapofhumanbrain.html?hp_and__r=2_and_) and a timely announcement by EU of the €1 billion Human Brain Project (http://www.humanbrainproject.eu) are so significant. They both reflect a deeper understanding that we, the very young Homo sapiens sapiens, must understand our own brain and that the fate of our species depends on this understanding. It is a fascinating time to try to understand the brain. In their quest to understand this mystifying organ, the knowledge that the experts have gathered during the past five years amounts overwhelmingly more than the rest of the recorded human history of neuroscience combined. This knowledge has been driven by advancements in technology. The developments in scanning technology have allowed scientists unprecedented access into real time brain activities. Meanwhile, decoding of the human genome has opened a window to see how gene dictates neuronal functions that generate our behavior. Moreover, never before, we had such easy access to the information on their findings.

The single most important thing to keep in mind as we begin our consideration of understanding the brain is that the brain is the most complex organ in the body and its complexity is staggering. This complexity is not only because of its structure that resembles a dense convoluted meshwork of gray or white jungle but also to the fact that it can be studied from several different perspectives at several different levels of resolution. Thankfully, there are dedicated neurologists studying the brain at each of these levels. These levels can be summarized as:

•   At the nanometer scale resolution: The study of proteins, genes and the receptors at the synapses.

•   At the micrometer level resolution: The neurons and their synapses.

•   At the millimeter level resolution: The networks comprising about 10,000 neurons and about 300,000 synapses exhibiting patterns of electrical spikes that can be reproduced by mathematical deductions in a computer program.

•   At the centimeter level resolution: Vast networks generating collective pattern of behavior.

•   At the meter level resolution: The gross anatomy of the brain and its different regions that constitutes the domains of studies like Behavioral Neurology, Psychology and so forth.

The difficulty in finding how activities at the nanometer scale ultimately modulate our perception or behavior is in the process of being clarified by the use of mathematics and the application of such mathematics is fundamental to our understanding of the coordinated neuronal activities that seamlessly generate such properties. Such mathematical application is essential in simulation of neuronal activities in the supercomputers. Consequently, the students who are in quest of learning neurology should be faced with thorough updates of Renaissance proportion lately. The modern day da Vinci researcher must not only be adept in Neurobiology, especially in the anatomy and circuit structure of the brain along with Physiology, Medicine, Psychology and some aspects of psychiatric and neurologic disease processes, they also have to be equally knowledgeable in Theoretical and Applied Physics, Engineering, Mathematics, Theory and Modeling Concepts and Computer Science.

Modern neuroscience started about 107 years ago when Camillo Golgi (Italy) and Ramón y Cajal (Spain) got their Nobel Prize in 1906 for the development and application of a stain (the Golgi stain) that enabled discovery of the neural networks. They did not know the existence of Neurons and the resolution that was available back then did not tell them if this network was a continuum or there were connections. They locked themselves in a great debate with Golgi insisting that the brain cannot be composed of smaller units. We now know that Cajal was right. Nevertheless, they were the giants. Their shoulders are still appreciated to sit upon to gain an understanding of the neurons.

In the 21st. Century to meet with this great challenge of understanding the brain, scientists have developed the use of technology unforeseen ever before. They are many techniques that are being currently pursued, out of which some of the prominent ones are:

•   Connectomics: Under electron microscope sections or slides, the thickness in the scale of nanometers are cut, the structures in each slice are stained with standardized colors and are then stacked on top of each other. Computerized procedures eliminate the non-stained areas to generate a 3-D replication of the structures contained in that stack of slides. Mouse brain is being studied this way, section by section, each having a millimeter width of the cortex. This provides the blueprint, a road map of who is or is not connected to whom. This will eventually bridge the gap between structure and functions problem in the brain. This technology is expensive but very effective and that is why it is being pursued at many different research facilities around the world.

•   Brainbow technology: A group of Harvard scientists developed a genetic technique at the molecular level where they inserted engineered DNA into the cellular genome, in this case in the neuron of a mouse. When the genes are expressed and if that DNA is in the right location, the cell becomes luminous. Brain is actually a mesh of Gray or White Matter, depending where it is focused. When a particular cell type lights up in its midst, the pattern of its network becomes visible. In cases of neurons with long axons extending to another region, its pathway also becomes clear to see by the application of this technique. The illumination of neurons can remind the viewer of a rainbow in a gray or white mesh that justifies the name of this technology. One can zoom in more having a clarified destination to see the integral properties of such neurons and the part of the network they represent.

•   Brain-machine interface: The neural circuitry that generates a behavior is all about the spikes of electricity in a specific region in the brain. If this electrical pattern can be read and reproduced, a robotic arm (in case of spinal cord injuries or amputees) can be manipulated to desired effect real time. This is being studied at several Universities across the US. At University of Pittsburg, Andrew Schwartz demonstrated a scenario with a monkey in a laboratory, where the monkey was seated on a chair with its hands immobilized on the armrests by a wrap. But his fingers were free to move. The monkey was offered pieces of fruit attached to a pointer at arms length away from his face that any monkey would desire to eat. Tiny recording electrodes were placed in the monkey’s brain that would send real time signals to a computer that had been programmed to integrate those signals to move a robotic arm. As the monkey fired its motor neurons to move its hand muscles to retrieve the food, which could also be evidenced by the correlated movements of its fingers, the data of the firings were processed by the computer to move the robotic arm precisely to retrieve the food to his mouth repeatedly following each fresh offer of fruits.

•   Optogenetics: The only cells that are sensitive to light are located in our retina. They contain a photosensitive receptor (rhodopsin) that swallow the photon and transduce electrical activity that eventually generates our sight. This means we have genes that generate specific molecules that are sensitive to light. Recently a group of scientists has found that gene. They inserted that gene in ordinary cells. The cells started generating electrical spikes when specific wavelength of light was illuminated on them. Blue light has been found to be effective in the mouse brain with such engineered neuron that, for instance, are the ones that are involved in controlling the urge to drink. Every time the light was turned on, the mouse was found to reach for its drink from a little bucket. Other times it would run around doing whatever it wanted to do, but once the light was turned on for a few short bursts, the mouse would leave everything to get its drink. Light from another wavelength, for example, yellow would stop a certain activity using a different gene expression. In the US, industrial scale brain research facilities like the Janelia Farm in Ashburn, VA or the Allen Institute in Seattle, WA demonstrated this very powerful and modern technique. This can be used in the treatment of certain psychiatric diseases if the society permits.

•   Blue Brain Project: IBM’s next generation supercomputer Deep Blue has been used to generate artificial brain activity of 10,000 neurons of mouse brain of I mm³ area. Each processor of the computer dealt with all the activities of a single neuron to generate a 3-D pattern. This computer-based simulation has been actually designed to encompass the 3-D replication of the entire brain eventually. In the event of illness as in Schizophrenia, the computer will process the altered connectivity. Fixing that at the computer level will usher the new era of treatment of such disease, as the treatment will contain a blue print of treatment plan, for example.

•   The Clarity Method: Karl Deisseroth et al at Stanford in 2013 developed a mind-blowing technology that makes the whole brain transparent. Then any structure comprising a group of cells that are dyed become clearly visible in the functioning living brain. They have tried it on mouse primarily and on preserved dead human brains. Hopefully, soon it will be good enough to apply on the living human brain that will eliminate the invasive requirements revealing its deeper secrets further. They published their achievement in the Nature Magazine. What blocks the view of the interior of the brain is the lipid or fat layers of the neurons. They placed everything on a hydrogel mesh then erased the fat. This caused the structures of the brain to become clear on the monitor screen and only the stained areas became visible.

•   The Blue Gene Project: Henry Markham is leading the project to develop the platform for future brain research that encompasses many facets and involves diverse professionals around the world. The idea is to develop technology, raise public awareness, develop the codes of ethics as stepping into new realms exposes new scenarios and their challenges.

All these have been ultimately designed to answer the fundamental big questions that no one yet has the answer to. With the rate of progress, hopefully, we will get to know a lot more by 2030 a time coinciding with the availability of the required technology.

Background

Considering the advancements that took place recently, it can become a concern that the modern neurology may present an enormous challenge for anyone trying to grasp the complexities of the human brain, without the luxury of ever receiving a methodical coaching and training that eventually produce the neurologists, neuroscientists, neuroanatomists or the neurobiologists. That has to be natural. However, as with anything else, if someone is interested in learning something, it increasingly opens up in the progression of time. This is why, while writing this book I kept that notion in mind as my basic intention was to write for someone who is not a neurologist, to keep the information authentic yet not as intimidating as possible for comprehension. My thinking behind writing this book got its shape from the simple idea that if I can understand so far, so can anyone who happens to share the curiosity.

I have always been curious about the brain, ever since I developed this understanding that it is my brain that is somehow generating all my experiences for me, while the rest of my body is just tagging along. How the brain generates the mind is fascinating enough to be curious about for most anyway. Having a Bachelors Degree in Dentistry from abroad gave me a fleeting glimpse of the brain during my undergraduate course work in the 80s that aroused my curiosity further. That education also shaped my mind to embark on a fascinating solo journey spanning years to get to know the increasing new realms that make each of us possible. Having passed the US Dental Board Exams in mid 1990s, I decided not to pursue Dentistry and explored the prospect of a graduate education in Neurology instead, where my passion lies. However, I found out to my dismay that I was not qualified enough to be considered for graduate admission, in spite of a decent GRE score, mainly because of many limitations of my background education. Although I eventually abandoned my quest in that direction, I could not subdue my urge to understand this mystifying organ as I had already figured that this knowledge would be the mother of all knowledge because getting to know the brain would eventually place everything in the appropriate perspective where they should actually belong. While working as a Teaching Instructor at a local Educational Facility in Orlando, FL soon after, I delved into their resources on neurology in my free time. Since those days, I have been referring to the PubMed of NHI for their continued publications on current findings. I have read about the research work of great many research scientists in their publications in Science Magazine, Nature Magazine and the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) sifting for pertinent topics. I have watched and listened to great many lectures on Brain Science and its related topics at the Tedx talk platform where I became exposed to Dr. V. S. Ramachandran. I have tried to study his works as much as possible since. In the same context, I remain indebted for my knowledge to Dr. Jill Bolte, Dr. Helen Fischer, Dr. Charles Limb and many more that has broadened my horizon of knowledge considerably.

Eventually, I fortunately discovered Coursera and when they started offering courses on Neurology, I gladly participated. This actually turned out to be a fascinating experience as I attended very informative lecture series of some of the great professors around the world. The most I remain indebted to are Dr. Henry Lester, the Bren Professor of Biological Sciences, Caltech; Prof. Idan Segev, the David & Inez Myers Professor in Computational Neuroscience and former Director of the Interdisciplinary Center for Neural Computation (ICNC) at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Dr. Leonard White, the Associate Professor and Director of Education of Institute of Brain Science at Duke University, Dr. O’Brien and Dr. St. Leger of University of Maryland, Dr. Rajesh Rao and Dr. Adrienne Fairhall of University of Washington, Dr. Mohammad Noor of Duke University and there are many more. I have always readily remained a student to whoever had something that I thought was worth learning from, my entire life.

The information age is a great time to be alive. Thanks to digitized information and ease of access, that has enriched my knowledge greatly. I myself have not done any of the original research. I just made myself aware of the findings of the professionally trained researchers to come up with my writings. In this context, I have to confess, I have borrowed ideas for so many over the years that is beyond my ability to recall. However, I was choosy in collecting information, as not all studies can be deemed relevant to my quest. I inferred only after incubation of my thoughts, which progressively became educated enough to come up with my conclusion based on logic and reasoning but not by conducting any original research in that context. Nevertheless, I remain totally responsible for the content of this book.

Although I have written keeping in mind the non-medical persons as readers, I still have this concern that the study of the structure and functions of brain squarely falls into the medical domain. Hence, some approaches may seem rather from the medical science. However, I tried my best not to be intimidating pretending to be scholarly although I think it is impossible to talk about the brain from a nonprofessional’s point of view, while I remain a nonprofessional humble writer myself. Moreover, never in any context was it my intention to refute or affirm the existence of God or His deeds from the context of any theological perspectives. If the Holy God is to be invoked in the context of creationism, it is only a product of my humble quest to see how that took place that is all. The effort to learn about the brain can be best approximated in the context of learning the mechanics of a car. As learning about the mechanics has nothing to do with the traffic rule of a land, learning the brain has nothing to do with any theological concept.

Besides, it has not been my intention while writing this book to pose as an educator. This is because there is no amount of persuasion involved towards anyone to read any of these pages. I am just putting it out there with this hope in mind that perhaps there might be some, whose cultivated sensitivity of mind will be able to absorb the content of these pages in such a manner that there can be an impact. That I think would be the ultimate reward for my years of hard work that went behind writing this book although its lack of voluminous trait may not reveal that notion far too easily. Nevertheless, I hope that for the reader who is curious about knowing the self and beyond, this book will come handy.

I have written the topics that I tried to cover at different times spanning almost two years. Initially my focus was to find out how the brain actually makes it happen for us so that we can be ourselves and effortlessly perform our daily chores. I gradually stepped into some harder topics. However, I chose not to arrange the chapters in a time-lapse sequence. Therefore, although some may seem disjointed from a superficial perspective, I hope they will make sense at the end and the connections will not be difficult to establish as they encompass the diverse functionalities of the same machine that we call brain.

Having touched upon the evolutionary aspect of the brain I moved on to describe some of the basic functionalities before addressing the issues like consciousness and self that have traditionally been within the domain of Philosophers. As the scope and knowledge of neurology is continuously expanding, it is boldly stepping into the Philosopher’s domain with monumental achievements by preeminent Neurologist Dr. Antonio Damasio of University of Southern California. There are many other researchers, who have contributed to the enrichment of human knowledge in this regard and I have acknowledged only a few of them wherever required.

The idea to include some of the current knowledge on a few theoretical aspect comes from the fact that some of these basic stuff cannot be avoided if one wants to think about the brain. That is why I have described brain’s structure to some extent. Neurons being the structural and functional unit of the brain, the brain cannot be understood properly unless a neuron is clearly understood. So I tried to highlight neuron from an angle I thought would be reasonable. Only then, I chose to discuss some functionality of the different regions of the brain and some philosophical or psychological topics from a neurological point of view. The greater perspective of this book is to find its place at the cross-road of Psychology and Philosophy, leaning heavily towards Neurology.

About our sense of awareness, the core concept that cannot be overemphasized is that we can only be aware of something that we have already perceived. Our irrefutable convictions in anything that we have perceived occurs as powerful systems drive from within, which do not allow any of that to be challenged. That puts us in our comfort zone often in an illusion, as the truth may remain counterintuitive. I thought the genetic basis of neuronal behavior is pertinent in the context of knowing thyself. I chose to exemplify the genetic basis of behavior further by highlighting the effect of nicotine in the brain and Pathway of Addiction. With billions of smokers around the world, this probably would find some connections. At the end, I have discussed a few common neurological as well as psychiatric disorders and diseases. In order to discuss the disease, I tried to highlight of their genetic basis, if any and the pathophysiology, that is, the disease processes.

Carl Sagan, the American astrophysicist once said something like, ‘the human brain ultimately has been evolved by the Universe in order to see itself’. Commonality with the rest of the Universe arises from sharing the common elements physically. Fortunately, these elements also generate a mind that is endowed with a natural curiosity to understand the world around us that includes understanding the brain. With that in mind, here is the product of my humble journey that I originally embarked on in order to comprehend what it takes to be the way we are. So without further ado, let us proceed… .

– Dewan Jaglul

CHAPTER I

Unlocking the Enigmatic Brain

F rancis Creek, the father of DNA and a Nobel Laureate of 1962 said, You, your joys and sorrows, your memories and your ambitions, your sense of your personal identity and your free will are in fact no more than the behavior of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated molecules. This is why, in the context of ‘know thyself’, it has been the quest of many to try to understand how the brain makes it all possible. The intricacy of the brain is to be appreciated to realize that there is no single approach available to explain it all. An attempt to explain can only be made in increments, bit by bit striving to gain an understanding of what actually transpires in the background that translates into a perception or a behavior.

The only life that has been mapped with all its neural connections is a tiny worm called C. elegans. It has a humble nervous system comprising 302 neurons. Scientists meticulously studied this small creature in the 70s and 80s and mapped all the connections of those neurons, 7000 in all. In that map, the lines drawn showed the connection and the nodes were neurons. Although it was supposedly a simplistic scenario, yet it looked like a complex maze. However, it should not be too difficult to realize that the firing patterns in those circuitries translate into the behavior of this worm. It gets increasingly harder as we move up the life forms. A tiny piece of a living brain containing ten thousand neurons roughly approximates to 1% of the brain of a cockroach. If we magnify it to a million times, we will find that it exhibits a pattern with random neurons turning on and off in different locations continuously, which poses a challenge that our brain cannot readily comprehend. The human brain’s activity is a hundred million times more complicated than that. Somewhere in those patterns in each of us lie all our perceptions, emotions and thoughts, ideas and beliefs, memories and plans for the future. So it has become essential for the neuroscientists to take aid of supercomputers to simulate the pattern that arise out of inputs in the form of mathematical deliberation representing each individual neuronal activity embedded within a given network. A host of these formulae containing variable data collectively generates a pattern that represents the behavior of that network. This can be a whole lot easier to comprehend as this can be manipulated.

A fresh brain has a pinkish-gray gelatinous structure, with red (arterial) blood vessels coursing all over its grooves. Its consistency is somewhere between hard jelly and cold butter. Under naked eyes, it does not reveal any complicacy. Only when we look through an electron microscope and zoom in a hundred thousand times at high resolution, we begin to see the neurons, which are the nerve cells. As we turn the resolution even higher, we see the intricacies of their connections. Some may have seen a picture of a neuron, perhaps of some artist’s simplified rendition. In reality, they resemble more like large trees with the ramification of branches ending in twigs. A variety of neurons connected in a grid like network each having its own intensity of firing collectively accomplish the automated or intended functionalities that in turn gives rise to either a perception or a behavior. In order to see all the connections of a neuron we have to include a great many neurons at the same time. A great many neurons connected together in a network are evident even in a cubic millimeter as can be seen in the cortex. Networks can also be traversing a huge area of the brain.

Nerves pretty much do one