Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone 2: Societal Issues

This volume comprises three parts: 1) from local to global, 2) what type of sustainable management? 3) territorial approaches. The first chapter demonstrates, from the French example, that better soil management is a societal issue. At the global level, the second chapter raises the question of land grabbing and land use conflicts. This book also raises the question of the legal status of the soil. It then shows how soils need to be integrated when defining sustainable agricultural systems. French and European examples illustrate how taking environmental problems into account depends as much on their acuity as on how problems are perceived by public and private, social or economic actors. Therefore, it is important to promote co-diagnosis involving the scientific community and the various other actors in order to improve the regulation on soils. This multi-actor soil governance is facilitated by the use of simple soil quality indicators. Finally, examples in France and Vietnam show how soils are to be considered as territorial commons within landscapes. This last chapter recommends in particular to put an end to the absolute right of soil ownership and to distribute the usufruct of land between various private and public beneficiaries.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Wiley
• Release date: Aug 21, 2018
• ISBN: 9781119550907

Book preview

Foreword

ISTE’s scientific publications include a pluridisciplinary editorial sphere entitled Earth Systems – Environmental Sciences and, within this domain, we are now pleased to release a series of works entitled Soils, coordinated by Christian Valentin, as part of the activities of the working group on soils at the Académie d’Agriculture de France (French Academy of Agriculture).

The general title of this series of works, Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone merits a number of comments.

The Critical Zone (CZ), a concept which is now globally recognized, designates the location of interactions between the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the pedosphere – the outermost layer of the Earth’s crust, made up of soils and subject to the processes for soil formation, derived from interactions with the other surface components – the lithosphere and ecosystems. Within this zone, there are vital exchanges of water, matter and energy, such exchanges interacting with those of other layers, both oceanic and atmospheric, within the Earth system. Its extreme reactivity, whether physical, chemical or biological, is an essential factor of the overall regulation of this Earth system.

Supporting all forms of life, this thin layer has a high level of interaction with human activities. Examples of these are agriculture, urbanization, resource extraction, waste management and economic activities.

This concept of the Critical Zone (CZ) entirely revives the environmental approach, simultaneously enabling an integrated, descriptive, explanatory and predictive view of the Earth system, of its major biogeochemical cycles and their interaction with the climate system. The view becomes dynamic, explaining all interactions, and opens the way for predictive modeling. Such processes are necessarily integrated with given models, paying special attention to the hydrological cycle as well as the carbon and nitrogen cycles.

Within the CZ, soil is a key component, playing a prominent role in the storage, dynamics and conversion of biogenic elements (carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous – C, N, P) and of all inorganic, organic or microbiological contaminants. This contributes to significantly affecting the quantity and the quality of the essential resources for human activity, these being soils, water and air quality.

Soils thus return to the top of the international agenda, as a result of the major challenges for any civilization. These include agricultural production, climate change, changes and conflicts over land use (deforestation, urbanization, land grabbing and others), biodiversity, major cycles (water, carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P)), pollution, health, waste, the circular economy, and so on. They appear therefore legitimately within the United Nations’ sustainable development goals by 2030 (SDG 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss).

The study of soils, as a key component of the Critical Zone, should thus not only be tackled by soil science but also within the highly numerous disciplines of Earth and life sciences, humanities and social sciences. Soils, being as they are at the center of multiple interactions, are an intricate array of systems, a nexus joining the essential parameters. These are food, water, energy, climate and biodiversity.

Soils, in terms of structure and dynamics, with complex processes, are sensitive to global changes that induce developments, which themselves obey threshold processes and issues of resilience. These involve, with regard to their study, taking into account not only short but also long time spans. This aspect was stressed in a white paper on soils published by the CNRS in 2015 (available at the address: www.insu.cnrs.fr/node/5432). The dynamics of major biogeochemical cycles, in particular with timescale characteristics which can be centuries old, indeed even go further back beyond that and so on.

It is clear that among the major components of the environment discussed earlier, soils are the least understood by the general public, by the authorities and even in academic circles. Consequently, it becomes of prime importance to provide the conceptual bases to the greatest number of university teachers and students so as to tackle soils with the complexity of their nature, their mechanics, their diversity and their interactions with other components, within the Critical Zone.

This is what is achieved with the reflections, analyses and the prospective studies carried out by all of the authors in this series. They are top scientists with a high level of international expertise within their discipline, and are mindful of adopting a holistic approach to soil study. The authors of this series pay specific attention to aspects able to be concluded through an open interdisciplinary science, beyond the single scientific community, policymakers, managers and to all those who are interested in the evolution of our planet. These authors also support their scientific reflection in line with training demands and, of course, the broadest dissemination of knowledge.

The series takes the form of six volumes:

– Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone 1: Functions and Services, a volume which will serve as a general introduction;

– Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone 2: Societal Issues;

– Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone 3: Soils and Water Circulation;

– Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone 4: Soils and Water Quality;

– Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone 5: Degradation and Rehabilitation; and

– Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone 6: Ecology.

Finally, it is worth mentioning again that this series was prepared essentially within the working group Soils at the Académie d’Agriculture de France, under the debonair, yet tenacious and assertive, stewardship of Christian Valentin. We are grateful to this group of scientists and their leader for producing this series.

André MARIOTTI

Professor Emeritus at Sorbonne University

Honorary Member of the Institut Universitaire de France

Coordinator of the series

Earth Systems – Environmental Sciences, ISTE Ltd

Part 1

Local and Global

1

Effective Management of Agricultural Soils: A Challenge for Society

1.1. Introduction

The French Economic, Social and Environmental Council or ESEC (Conseil économique, social et environnement – CESE), the third constitutional assembly of France, have voiced their opinions on the questions regarding society. The year 2015 was declared as the International Year of Soils by the FAO. This crucial subject, which is often overlooked by French citizens, warranted ESEC to devote a thorough approach to it, in order to identify soil-related issues and to develop an analysis of the situation and proposals for the future. Many national and international experts have been audited by members of the Agricultural Department at ESEC. The slogan, effective management of agricultural soils, a challenge for society, has been adopted by the plenary assembly of the ESEC during its meeting on May 13 2015¹.

For a long time, water was considered a precious resource as it is so vital. Its usage has therefore been the subject of numerous regulations, even internationally, in an attempt to avoid conflicts of use, which in some cases has led to wars. However, despite it being the source of basic life and food, there was such a late awareness of soil and this nourishment of land has not been greatly considered. Ultimately, the nourishment of humanity depends on the health of marine and terrestrial environments. Food comes from plant cultivation or animal husbandry, as well as other products derived from fish or aquaculture. Yet, the contribution of plants is essential; they only have the ability to use solar energy to create organic matter, from carbon dioxide captured in the air, and water and minerals they absorb from the soil. Awareness regarding the finite nature of fish stocks exists, and it has led to international decisions such as the introduction of fishing quotas. Despite this, the limits of the soil’s abilities are still not embedded in people’s minds or policies. Processes such as erosion, loss of fertility and artificialization are still occurring on a planetary scale. This ultimately affects the soil’s ability to continue producing food in sufficient quantities and qualities for an ever-growing population. In order to continue food production, which is the main purpose of agriculture, humanity must be aware of the soil’s needs, and of living and biologically rich soils. The aforementioned observation should provoke us to adopt a more global approach to soil and to consider it, as well as water and air, as a common heritage of humanity, while taking into account the rights of ownership and use. This will allow us to better reflect the multiplicity of its functions and the complexity of its interactions with other environments.

1.2. Findings and issues

At this point, we will not discuss the exact definition of soil, which is discussed in volume 1 of this series, Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone: Functions and Services; however, we will outline the issues related to its preservation.

1.2.1. Ecosystem services created by the soil

As part of the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment launched in 2001 by the United Nations, the ecosystems created by the soil are grouped into four broad categories:

– Self-sustaining services: these services make up chemical, physical and biological processes and the functioning and the maintenance of the soil itself. These include photosynthesis and the circulation of water, as well as microorganisms working to degrade and transform the soil’s components. These are natural mechanisms which make the production of services offered by the soil possible. Organic matter, mineral composition and immense biodiversity are at the heart of soil quality and provide essential functions, which will largely depend on other services created by the soil.

– Uptake and provisioning services: the soil is rich due to its fertility, and it can provide human food, materials, energy, carbon for industrial uses, and fibers and molecules generally used for pharmaceutical purposes.

– Regulating services: the soil plays a major role in the regulation of water and superficial flow, water and stream recharge, the filtration and the purification of waters which cross them (provided that they are not polluted, as this can cause the opposite effect). Through organic matter created by the photosynthesis of plants, they store and release greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide, which can significantly affect the earth’s climate. Gathering carbon as an organic matter in the soil is beneficial for both the soil’s fertility and for decreasing the amount of CO2 content in the atmosphere. Green soil also participates in the regulation of atmospheric humidity, and therefore of temperature, which no longer occurs in highly urbanized areas.

– Cultural services: due to the properties of soil, historically, it has largely determined the places where humanity, when they became farmers, settled down and founded the first cities. Over time, soils molded the way of life and crafted the countryside. The nurturing mantra of Mother Earth has also been enshrined in many cultural beliefs and traditions, and it remains so to this day (see volume 1 of this series, Soils as a Key Component of the Critical Zone: Functions and Services, Chapter 9).

1.2.2. The current major issues

The major issues relating to agricultural soils, particularly in France, cover two complementary dimensions: the protection of the soil’s fertility and the maintenance of its quality. These two aspects must allow the soil to fully play the vital roles mentioned above. These issues are not helped by the impact of climate change: the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has predicted that extreme weather conditions such as floods and heavy rain, will affect Western Europe which will no doubt weaken the soil and agricultural activity.

The continuing trend of declining areas devoting themselves to agriculture is difficult to measure, and forces the planet to make a difficult decision. Demographic growth and the political and societal choices of the last decades have contributed to increased needs in terms of housing, infrastructure, areas of economic, commercial and leisure activities, natural unspoilt areas and, of course, food. Yet, to meet this latter need, agriculture requires sufficient amounts of agricultural land. Ultimately, this means working to find a balance between different soil uses, while striving to protect natural and forest areas. There is then the question of the distribution between agricultural lands and natural and forestry areas.

At the same time, we are witnessing the emergence of a new process of land grabbing. Generally, land grabbing is carried out by companies with owners that are difficult to identify and of varying nationalities. It is a rare occurence in France, but very frequent in the more fertile areas of Africa, in some Latin American Territories and even in several countries belonging to the European Union². The increase in such practices (whether due to competition with the farmers currently placed on the land or the increase in the price of the land) begs the question: are the agricultural practices sustainable?

The second biggest issue relates to preservation, or perhaps improvement, where necessary, of soil quality which heavily depends on the level of organic matter and the existence of rich and varied biodiversity. This aspect is extremely important as it affects the maintenance of services, notably the ecosystems created by the soil. This is to keep the soil’s fertility which is essential to maintaining agricultural productivity and, to tackle the increase in food demand, to ensure that the water is purified and regulated, to reduce the risks of erosion and finally, to fight against climate change. It is also worth taking into account public health issues, the health status of food and drinking water being directly dependent on the soils they originate from.

1.3. Recommendations of the French Economic,