The Bible and Archaeology

By Richelle and Matthieu

The Bible and Archaeology is a brief, popular (but very informed and up-to-date) introduction on the relationship between the Bible and archaeology. Material culture (i.e., artifacts) and the biblical text illuminate each other in various ways, but laypeople—especially those who consider the biblical text sacred—rarely have a nuanced understanding of how this process works or how archaeological discoveries should be interpreted. This book provides an irenic and balanced perspective on this issue, showing how texts and artifacts are in a fascinating “dialogue” with one another that sheds light on the meaning and importance of both. The emerging picture is a rich and complex one that enlivens our understanding of the Bible and helps us appreciate its message and the historical and cultural contexts in which it was written, and that helps us be realistic about the limits of our knowledge.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Hendrickson Publishers
• Release date: Aug 1, 2018
• ISBN: 9781683072324

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The Bible and Archaeology (ebook edition)

© 2018 by Matthieu Richelle

Hendrickson Publishers Marketing, LLC

P. O. Box 3473

Peabody, Massachusetts 01961-3473

www.hendrickson.com

ebook ISBN 978-1-61970-232-4

Originally published in French under the title:

La Bible et l’archéologie

Copyright © 2012 by Matthieu Richelle

Published by permission of Excelsis, 26450 Charols, France.

Internet: www.XL6.com

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Due to technical issues, this eBook may not contain all of the images or diagrams in the original print edition of the work. In addition, adapting the print edition to the eBook format may require some other layout and feature changes to be made.

First eBook edition — August 2018

Figures 1–21 and 24–31: photographs by Matthieu Richelle.

Figure 22: drawing by Matthieu Richelle.

Figure 23: photograph by C. Amit, Israel Antiquities Authority and Khirbet Qeiyafa expedition; used by permission.

CONTENTS

Copyright

List of Figures

Foreword

Preface to the English Edition

Abbreviations

Introduction

1. What Archaeologists Discover

Discovering Ancient Cities

Identifying Sites

Going Back in Time

Population

Architecture

Discovering Life in Ancient Israel

Daily Life

The Structure of Israelite Society

Religious Practice

Commerce and International Relations

Historical Events

Notes

2. When Stones Speak

The Principal Types of Inscriptions

Royal Stelae

Clay Tablets

Ostraca

Papyri

Scrolls

Other Materials

The Dead Sea Scrolls

The Difficulties of Epigraphy

Decipherment

Interpretation

Dating

The Problem of Forgeries

Notes

3. The Limits of Archaeology

Limits Imposed by the Interpretation of Data

A Lack of Certitude in the Identification of Sites

Correlations That Are Possible But Not Proven

Interpretations Rather Than Raw Facts

Uncertain Dates

Limits Inherent to Excavations

The Object of Excavations Is Ruins

The Excavation of a Site Is Partial

Excavations Are Not Always Published

Notes

4. The Bible and Archaeology: What Kind of Relationship?

The Different Approaches

Archaeology, Servant of the Bible

The Positive Approach of Biblical Archaeology

Syro-Palestinian Archaeology as an Independent Discipline

Archaeology as the Only Historical Source

Archaeology as Judge of the Bible

Archaeology as a Primary Source

Toward a Balanced Approach

The Use of the Bible

The Biblical Accounts as Historical Sources

Drawing Hypotheses from the Bible

Real-Life Scenarios

Confirmations

Comparisons

Illustrations

Complements

Areas without Interaction

Tensions and Contradictions

Conclusion

Notes

5. A Case Study: The Kingdom of David and Solomon

The Problem

Challenging the Traditional Views

A New Chronology?

What Is at Stake?

The Chronology

Jerusalem

The Heart of the Problem

The Debate Today

A Minority View

A Still-Debated Solomonic Building Work

The Case of Jerusalem

The Temple

David’s Palace

The Ophel

Conclusion, with a Few Words on the Biblical Debate

Notes

6. Archaeology and Writing in the Time of David and Solomon

The Dearth of Inscriptions from the Tenth to Ninth Centuries BCE

A Correlation between the Development of a Country and Literature?

Pointers to Literary Activity in the Tenth and Ninth Centuries

A Continuous Scribal Tradition

A National Script

Writing Fast

A Standardized Script

The Proper Context for Some Biblical Narratives?

Further Questions

Conclusion

For Further Reading

Figures

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1

The Damascus Gate.

Figure 2

Remains of the fortress of Horvat ‘Uza.

Figure 3

Trench showing the build-up of strata at Tel Rehov.

Figure 4

Remains of the royal palace of Samaria.

Figure 5

Principal altar of Tel Dan, represented by a metal structure, and steps.

Figure 6

Altar with horns at Beersheba, reconstructed by archaeologists.

Figure 7

The platform or high place of Tel Dan and the imposing staircase that leads to it.

Figure 8

Detail of a wall of the Tel Dan platform.

Figure 9

Segment of the rampart of Jerusalem, dating to around 700 BCE.

Figure 10

Gate with six rooms at Gezer (seen from behind).

Figure 11

Inside the Tel Dan gate compound, a pedestal (?) and stands in the form of pumpkins, perhaps for capitals.

Figure 12

Four-room house at Tall al-‘Umayri, partially reconstructed by archaeologists with wooden pillars (in this photo, we can see face-on three parallel rooms separated by pillars).

Figure 13

Four-room house at al-Lahun, seen from the side: on the left, the three parallel rooms; to the right, the fourth perpendicular room, in reality divided into three sections (the first, closed off by a wall, is seen in the foreground; the two others were separated only by two pillars (which can be seen in the middle).

Figure 14

Building with pillars at Beer-Sheba.

Figure 15

A building with pillars (and basins) at Megiddo.

Figure 16

Mortars (Qumran).

Figure 17

Oil press from the eighth century (Hazor).

Figure 18

Silo (Megiddo).

Figure 19

Bird’s-eye view of the staircase leading to the underground tanks at Beersheba.

Figure 20

The holy of holies of the sanctuary of Arad, with its restored incense altars (in the foreground) and standing stones (in the background).

Figure 21

Bird’s-eye view of the stone ramp at Masada (which covers the long incline in the lower left hand corner of the photograph).

Figure 22

Ostracon A1 from Hisban (drawing by M. Richelle).

Figure 23

The Qeiyafa ostracon.

Figure 24

Qumran cave 4.

Figure 25

Quarry at the City of David, with a stone carved out of the rock still on site.

Figure 26

The traditional Pool of Siloam.

Figure 27

A staircase leading to the Pool of Siloam.

Figure 28

Buildings at Tel Rehov near the site of the hives.

Figure 29

The six-chambered gate of Hazor.

Figure 30

The Dome of the Rock, on the Temple Mount, possibly in the place where Solomon’s Temple was situated.

Figure 31

The Stepped Stone Structure on the eastern slope of the City of David.

FOREWORD

Can we see the remains of David’s palace in Jerusalem? visitors ask. Yes! says one archaeologist, I’ve found some of its walls. No! says another, those walls were built one hundred years later! Why does archaeology not give a clear answer to the question? Matthieu Richelle explains in his clearly written study what archaeology can offer to help us understand the Bible and what it cannot. Museums are full of ancient objects, and archaeologists find more every year; and many others are found by accident when foundations are dug or roads cut through the landscape. Yet in addition to the great range of artifacts recovered, we should remember that many more still lie buried—or, more significantly, have disappeared. Textiles, leatherwork, basketry, and woodwork rot in even slightly damp conditions, so a large part of the equipment of ancient life is lost. Only rare circumstances allow books written on papyrus or leather to survive, as the Dead Sea Scrolls have done in the arid climate on the border of the Dead Sea. They are about two thousand years old, and no older copies of books in Hebrew have been discovered. Did any exist? Richelle discusses the debated question of when the histories of Israel and Judah were written and shows that it is reasonable to suppose that the books of Samuel rest on records from the days of David and Solomon, rather than being wholly later compositions, as many modern writers assume. Part of the evidence comes from his research on ancient Hebrew inscriptions found in the Holy Land.

To come to archaeology expecting to make particular discoveries is the wrong approach. The archaeologist seeks to learn about a place, its buildings, its people and their activities, the changes the place experienced over the centuries, and its relations with other places. When discoveries do produce a link with the Bible, they need very careful evaluation before any conclusions can be drawn. Carved ivory fragments found at Samaria hint at the splendor of king Ahab’s palace there, although they may not actually have decorated it. There are Hebrew writings apparently acknowledging the goddess Asherah beside Israel’s God, but they should not lead to the conclusion that all Israelites worshipped her.

Matthieu Richelle demonstrates the positive contributions that archaeology can make to a better understanding of the Bible in its ancient world. He uses the most recent debates about the dates of buildings that might have been erected at Solomon’s orders, or at Ahab’s a century later. He shows how the uncertainty results in part from the way some scholars—notably the authors of The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts (2001)—assume that the biblical reports have little factual basis, and also in part from attempts to use the carbon 14 technique to define the dates of the structures. The differences of opinion among scholars continue, but through Richelle’s book readers will be better able to disentangle the factual from the hypothetical as they try to evaluate the evidence. The endnotes guide readers to major sources and discussions.

Rightly interpreted, archaeological findings and the Bible are complementary. Some questions and problems cannot be resolved at present because the evidence from outside the Bible is too meagre, a fact often ignored, so there is more work to be done, more to be found, more to be learned. However, readers should always be aware that the Bible is primarily a book of theology that demands a response of faith—yet it also provides facts to accompany that faith.

The well-organized chapters that follow present a selection from the contributions archaeology makes to our understanding of the Bible, and their judicious and fair assessments make them a reliable introduction to the subject. Since this book’s original publication in French in 2011, the author has revised the work to strengthen his arguments and to bring it up to date. It will be a welcome guide for anyone interested in archaeology and the Bible.

—Alan R. Millard

Emeritus Rankin Professor of Hebrew and

Ancient Semitic Languages

The University of Liverpool

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION

This book, first published in French in 2011, was translated into Portuguese in 2016. For the English version, I had the opportunity to significantly revise, update, and enlarge my text; in addition, I added many endnotes that make it easier for the interested reader to further his or her study of a given subject or check the accuracy of the information I provide.

I am thankful to several people who helped in the production of this book. First of all, my wife, Sarah, not only translated the original book into English but also helped me produce a substantially revised version of it. I am most grateful to Alan Millard for his careful reading of the book, his many remarks that helped in improving the text, and his writing the foreword. My Doktorvater, André Lemaire, kindly agreed to read an earlier version of Chapter 5, in which I discuss a difficult subject that he is very knowledgeable about, and he made very helpful suggestions. I thank also Yosef Garfinkel, from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, for kindly giving me permission to use a photograph of the Qeiyafa ostracon. Last but not least, I am indebted to Jonathan Kline and Carl Nellis of Hendrickson Publishers for their help and kindness. Many thanks in particular to Jonathan for first approaching me with a view to publishing my book in English and for his constant encouragement, support, and help at each stage of the editing process. His numerous suggestions made the book much clearer and much more readable in many places.

ABBREVIATIONS

General Abbreviations

BCE

before the common era (equivalent to BC)

ca.

circa

cf.

compare, see also

CE

common era (equivalent to AD)

NRSV

New Revised Standard Version

Journals and Reference Works

ADAJ

Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan

AWE

Ancient West & East

BA

Biblical Archaeologist

BAR

Biblical Archaeology Review

BASOR

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research

BTB

Biblical Theology Bulletin

COS

The Context of Scripture. Edited by William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger Jr. 4 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1997–2017 (vol. 1: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World; vol. 2: Monumental Inscriptions from the Biblical World; vol. 3: Archival Documents from the Biblical World; vol. 4: Supplements)

EBR

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception. Edited by Hans-Josef Klauck et al. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009–

HBAI

Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel

HUCA

Hebrew Union College Annual

IEJ

Israel Exploration Journal

JANEH

Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History

JBL

Journal of Biblical Literature

JSOT

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

NEA

Near Eastern Archaeology

NEAEHL

The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land. Edited by Ephraim Stern et al. 4 vols. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society & Carta, 1993. Vol. 5: Supplementary Volume. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society; Washington, DC: Biblical Archaeological Society, 2008

PNAS

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

RB

Revue biblique

SBET

Scottish Bulletin of Evangelical Theology

TA

Tel Aviv

Transeu

Transeuphratène

TynBul

Tyndale Bulletin

UF

Ugarit-Forschungen

VT

Vetus Testamentum

ZAW

Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

ZDPV

Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins

INTRODUCTION

The Bible and archaeology have long been sources of fascination, and all the more so when one explores the relationship between them. Some researchers seek to demonstrate the veracity of the biblical texts through archaeological discoveries, while others drastically revise the history of ancient Israel on the basis of the results of excavations. The subject has recently been at the center of various books, articles, and television documentaries for the general public, not to mention the constant announcements and discussions on the Internet. In addition, there are already many works for laypeople that present archaeological discoveries illustrating the biblical narratives. The purpose of this book is different. It is written for those who wish to look beyond sensationalist claims and who want to acquire the keys for understanding what underlies the controversies. More precisely, the objective of this book is threefold:

to help you discover from scratch what archaeology reveals about the past, but also what its limits are, so that you can have an idea of what can truly be expected of it

to tackle the controversial question of the comparison between what the Bible affirms and what archaeologists discover

to shed light on two recent controversies concerning the time of David and Solomon

The first chapter introduces the different types of information that archaeology provides; most people are unaware of the whole spectrum, which ranges from architecture to the details of daily life in ancient Israel. Among the discoveries, inscriptions deserve a special place, since they grant access to invaluable information about the ancient world; the second chapter is devoted to them. It shows how the texts unearthed from the lands of the Near East throw precious light on the biblical narratives. This profusion of information could, however, lead us to forget the uncertainty that inevitably surrounds research. In order not to be duped by the sensationalism of announcements in the media made by certain archaeologists in search of fame, we must not ignore the limits that are inherent to archaeology; the third chapter reviews this subject.

With this basic information, we will be equipped to engage the heart of the subject: the relationship between the Bible and archaeology. How can we have a balanced approach to this subject, one that avoids the opposite traps of naïveté and unjustified skepticism and that also frees us from the baggage of preconceived notions? And what happens in practice when the biblical texts are compared with archaeological discoveries?

After responding to these general questions, in the final chapters we will review two case studies that focus on important current debates about the relationship between the Bible and archaeology. What are we to make of the claims that archaeological excavations demonstrate that David and