Physical Fundamentals of Nanomaterials

By Bangwei Zhang

Physical Fundamentals of Nanomaterials systematically describes the principles, structures and formation mechanisms of nanomaterials, in particular the concepts, principles and theories of their physical properties as well as the most important and commonly used preparation methods. The book aims to provide readers with a basic understanding of how nanomaterials are synthesized as well as their resultant physical properties it therefore focuses on the science of nanomaterials rather than applications, serving as an excellent starting point for researchers, materials scientists and advanced students who already possess a basic knowledge of chemistry and physics.

• Provides thorough coverage of the physics and processes involved in the preparation of nanomaterials
• Contains separate chapters for various types of synthesis methods, including gas phase, liquid phase, solid phase, and self-assembly
• Coverage of properties includes separate chapters on mechanical, thermal, optical, electrical and magnetic

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Feb 3, 2018
• ISBN: 9780124104792

Bangwei Zhang

Dr. Zhang Bangwei has been teaching and conducting research in the field of materials physics for more than fifty years. His research work in nanomaterials and amorphous materials, electroless alloy deposits, thermodynamics of alloys, and EAM theory and its applications has been highly cited and recognized in the national and international scientific community. He has twice received the Fellowship of The Max-Planck Society and worked in the Max-Planck Institut für Plasmaphysik (IPP); He has worked as a senior scientist in the Dept. of Materials Science at the University of Virginia and is a past member of The American Physical Society and the TMS (The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society). He and his group have studied nanomaterials for more than twenty years, focusing on the various methods for synthesizing nanomaterials. He has published more than 200 research papers, including more than 100 in international English-language academic journals. He has published three professional books and four handbooks in Chinese, including Embedded-atom Method Theory and its Application in Materials Science, and Practical Manual of Non-metallic Materials.

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20.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstract

The aim of the introduction of the book is to show a general concept to the readers of the book. The contents include what are the nanomaterials, the history of the development of the nanomaterials, importance of the nanomaterials, probable toxicity of the nanomaterials and how do people face it, and main research contents of the physical fundaments of nanomaterials. Especially, the author first proposed evidently that the development of substance civilization in human society has entered into the age of nanomaterials at the front of the chapter.

Keywords

Nanomaterials; physical fundaments; general concept; development history; probable toxic; substance civilization; human society; age of nanomaterials

Chapter Outline

1.1 Nanomaterial Age 1

1.2 What Are Nanomaterials? 3

1.3 History of Nanomaterial Development 5

1.3.1 Germination Stage 5

1.3.2 Preliminary Preparation Stage 7

1.3.3 Rapid-Development Stage 8

1.3.4 Industrial and Commercial Application Stage 10

1.4 Importance of Nanomaterials 11

1.4.1 Nanotechnology Programs of Leading Countries 11

1.4.2 Nanotechnology Investment Among Leading Countries 11

1.4.3 Analysis of the Importance of Nanotechnology 13

1.5 Potential Problems of Nanomaterials 14

1.6 Purpose of This Book: Fundamentals of Nanomaterial Physics 17

References 18

1.1 Nanomaterial Age

Humans learned to use fire and stone tools in the earliest stages of their development. The use of tools and equipment moved humanity from barbarism to civilization, and from passive use of nature to active improvement of nature. Humans thus created a brilliant civilization worldwide. The use of tools and equipment has played an indispensable role in developing human initiative and conquering nature. Manufacturing tools and devices is impossible without materials. Hence, materials represent cornerstones of human social development and modern civilization. There would be no development or progress for the human society or its prosperous civilizations and economies without material development.

Throughout human history, development and application of materials have represented milestones in social civilization and economic progress. A new class of materials and their applications tends to cause such major changes in human society that people name eras after the materials that define them.

Naming the human era from the materials used has been well recognized to the Old Stone, New Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages but remains discrepancy to the modern history. Fig. 1.1 shows one of the options for eras within the history of human development. Polymers, concrete/steel, and silicon overlap in the Information Age, which begins in today’s era and continues beyond, although it is not named after a material. The international community recognizes materials, energy sources, and information technology as three pillars of modern civilization. The materials used in these three pillars are the basis for advancement in energy and information, as all tools, devices, and systems are manufactured from materials. Previous ages were named after the materials most representative of them. What material would be appropriate to use in naming the current age? Nanomaterials. Thus, our era should be named the Nanomaterial Age.

Figure 1.1 One of the options for eras within the history of human development.

Naming historical eras of human development after the materials that most represent them not only embodies the irreplaceable and fundamental role of materials in human development but also faithfully reflects historical reality. As early as the Spring and Autumn Warring States periods within China more than 2000 years ago, our ancestors gradually mastered the technology required to manipulate iron alloys with higher melting points to achieve better hardness and strengths than that provided by bronze (an alloy of copper, tin, aluminum, and other elements). Iron farm tools, hand tools, and various weapons were widely used and contributed significantly to the development of this civilization. China created a splendid ancient civilization. However, the tendency to rust and brittleness of iron produced severe constraints on social development. Scientific and technical personnel in the newly capitalist world gradually mastered steel by controlling the amount of carbon alloyed with the iron. Steel significantly improved upon the performance and lifetime of iron to stimulate progress and social development. Upon the discovery and application of cement, a new and unprecedented prosperous industrial society emerged. Industrial society allowed people to create a variety of appliances and systems, including cars, trains, aircrafts, and skyscrapers using steel and concrete. However, the era is not named for the objects constructed within it, but rather after the materials that were used to make them.

In the 1950s, silicon research and development led to the discovery and application of transistors and integrated circuits (ICs). This led to the development and widespread use of computers, televisions, and a large number of household electrical appliances. This era of human history was marked by the emerging development of silicon. This era was more active and energetic than that of steel and concrete. Thus, the iron and steel industries are sometimes known as sunset industries. That said, steel continues to play an important role in the world, particularly via recent development of microstructural control of ultrafine grained steel to make super steel, which increases the strength of carbon steel to 400–500 MPa. By using this super steel, the 300-m-tall Eiffel Tower could be built to a height of 1500 m. In addition, the theoretical strength of iron is 13,734 MPa, while actual strengths achieved via development and utilization of the metal are only of 1/5th–1/10th of this value. There is significant room to further increase the strength of steel. Thus, even though this material belongs to a so-called sunset industry, research and development are still worthwhile. However, in general and global terms, iron and steel are not as prestigious in the Silicon Era as they once were. Today, the Silicon Era is being replaced by the era of nanomaterials. This change in eras and related improvements in human society will not cause sadness for even the most nostalgic person, as they will produce a higher level of development and further improvements to quality of life.

Attaching the names of famous items or some kind of comprehensive abstraction to historic eras of human development, instead of the most represented materials, conflicts with historical facts and leads to misdirection. The computer is an important product of the Silicon Era. Systems have become increasingly fast as new generations of technology have been developed. Critical computer parts include processors and chips, wherein transistor speed and performance are determined by the pace of miniaturization [1]. The rate of transistor miniaturization relies on Si quality, performance enhancements, and improvements in manufacturing technologies. Overall, computer performance relies on Si and process technology. Without Si, the computers that are so common today would not be possible. Since its establishment in the 1960s, the Intel Corporation took advantage of a progressive, in-depth study of Si materials and transistor miniaturization and further developed this into generation after generation of processors. Even though Intel is not the leading computer manufacturer, it has been a leading company in the field for decades. Bell Labs invented the transistor and was intended to be a significant organization but lost its way in the 1960s and is no longer an industry leader. Today, in the post–Silicon Era, naming it the information age would not communicate the types of information products that signify the time and would intentionally ignore development and research in nanomaterials. In fact, some countries have applied this type of bias and focused only on development of and investment in information products, reducing or ignoring investments in nanomaterial research and development. Therefore, referring the current time to as the age of nanomaterials is reasonable.

1.2 What Are Nanomaterials?

A nanometer is a unit of measurement of geometric dimensions. One nanometer is 10−9 m. How small is this? Fig. 1.2 shows lengths ranging from 1 m to 0.1 nm. The figure shows many familiar items so that we can consider them in a concrete manner. A cat is approximately 0.3 m tall; a bee is about 15 mm in size; the head of a pin takes up 1–2 mm; a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) is built on the scale of 10–100 μm; the diameter of a human hair is 50 μm; a pollen grain is about 10 μm in size; red and white blood cells are about 2–5 μm; the wavelengths of visible light range are from about 0.4 to 0.7 μm; the atomic radii of Au and Si are 0.144 and 0.117 nm, respectively [2]; the size of an indium–arsenide quantum dot is 10 nm; and deoxyribonucleic acid is about 2 nm. In this figure, the region from 1 to 100 μm is known as microworld, and the range from 1 to 100 nm is called the nanoworld.

Figure 1.2 Sizes of certain objects, including nanoscale objects.

The earliest definition of nanotechnology was presented by Taniguchi in 1974 [3], who stated that nanotechnology is a very high-accuracy, high-fineness area of product technology, with accuracy that can reach 1 nm. United Kingdom (UK) nanomaterials expert Baoer Hualun [4] stated that nanotechnology is science and technology that is used to fabricate novel materials and microdevices on the scale of thousands of molecules or atoms. One of the most accepted definitions of nanoscale science and technology is one published by the United States (US) Nanoscale Science, Engineering and Technology (NSET) group in 2000. It defines nanoscale science and technology as research and technology development at the atomic, molecular or macromolecular levels, in the length scale of approximately 1–100 nm range, to provide a fundamental understanding of phenomena and materials at the nanoscale, to create and use structures, devices, and systems that have novel properties and functions because of their small and/or intermediate size. Nanomaterials are the foundation of nanotechnology. We can provide a definition for nanomaterials: all materials with dimensions in the range of 1–100 nm that provide new features and functionalities because of their small dimensions. The current literature regarding the definition of nanotechnology is not particularly uniform.

1.3 History of Nanomaterial Development

This book concerns only artificial nanomaterials and does not discuss natural nanomaterials. The historical development of nanomaterials can be divided into four phases: ancient to 1959, the embryonic stage of development; 1960–90, the initial preparation phase; 1991–2000, rapid development; and post-2001, commercial and industrial application.

1.3.1 Germination Stage

That humans prepared and applied nanomaterials via simple methods can be traced back to ancient civilizations such as those in China. For example, the pigment carbon black was the source of China ink in four treasures of Chinese culture. In October 1982, archeologists at the late Yangshao culture site at Dadi Bay of Wuying village, Qinan County, Gansu province unearthed a house foundation that contained drawings that were painted approximately 5000 years ago. The painting on the ground near the rear wall was drawn with black pigment. Preliminary identification by the Gansu Provincial Museum Antiquities conservation lab shows that the pigment is carbon black. Approximately 5000 years ago, our ancestors knew how to manufacture carbon black and use it to produce pigment. About 1800 years ago, Eastern Han Dynasty Cao Zhi (192–232 BC) wrote a poem that created an explicit record of the use of nanomaterials. His sixth Yuefu poem says China ink comes from pine smoke, writing brush comes from the rabbit fur; ancients feel bird trail, the text has been changed. This indicates how ancient people harvested carbon from smoke by burning pine and then mixed it with resin to make ink. Li Tinggui in Southern Tang Dynasty created the famous inkstick produced at Huizhou of Anhui Province. The inkstick produced at Huizhou within Anhui Province was considered the best during the Song Dynasty of Pan Gu, Ming Dynasty of Cheng Junfang, and the Qing Dynasty of Hu Kenwen, Cao Sugong, Wang Jinsheng, and Wang Jiean. Carbon black pigments and inks were used proudly in China for thousands of years and are examples of early manufacturing and use of nanomaterials.

Since the start of the 20th century, carbon black has been mixed with rubber to increase the strength and wear resistance of the latter. Since there is significant demand for carbon black that can be used in pigments, leading countries produce large amounts of the material. Carbon black is a nanomaterial, and the current-related ASTM standards (N110–N990) define carbon black grades by nanoparticle size. The N110 standard defines an average carbon black particle size of approximately 15 nm.

In 1951, the German scientist Kanzig observed BaTiO3 particles sized between 10 and 100 nm in the microregion of polarity [5]. This shows that people had begun to experiment with nanomaterials. During this long period, awareness of nanomaterials was quite shallow, and their use was sporadic.

One very important event within this period signaled a conscious desire to explore nanomaterial preparation—a classic report by the famous theoretical physicist and Nobel Award winner Feynman on December 9, 1959 at a US Physics Meeting held at the California Institute of Technology (CIT). Feynman stated, there is plenty of room at the bottom [6]. In this famous speech and article made with a wide range of references, Feynman offered a predictive review of several aspects of nanomaterials and related technologies. First, he asked why we can’t save the 24-volume British Encyclopedia on a tip of a pin. In his view, this could be achievable. He even calculated that the encyclopedia would have to become only 25,000 times smaller. How does one achieve this? Feynman’s vision was that small machines could be used to manufacture even smaller machines, etc., until molecular machines are manufactured. This is often referred to as the top-down approach. Feynman made clear that we might be able to arrange atoms according to our own needs. The ability to do this would be a great achievement! Feynman expected to invent better electron microscopes with the ability to see individual atoms and expressed wonder at the potential to view individual atoms clearly. Feynman also said that the people of the 1960s would be blamed by the year 2000 if no one carried out additional serious research within the field of nanoscale science. However, the historical record shows that most mainstream scientists were skeptical of Feynman’s warning. This situation did not change significantly until the early 1980s. In 1981, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Professor Drexler inherited Feynman’s ideas and continued to promote the study of nanotechnology [7]; however, this was not recognized by the mainstream scientific community until the early 1990s. Feynman’s initiative had been shelved for nearly 30 years. Zyvex Corporation lead researcher Merkle wrote the It’s impossible article, a detailed analysis of why Feynman’s initiative on nanotechnology was not accepted by scientists and reached an incorrect conclusion.

As a theoretical physicist working with less-developed technology in 1959, Feynman was able to make profound forecasts regarding nanotechnology. Today, Feynman’s vision has been achieved. In 1981, Binnig and Rohrer of IBM Zurich Research Labs invented the scanning tunneling electron microscope (STM), followed by the atomic force microscope in 1986, which could both see and manipulate atoms on a metal surface. In 1989, IBM’s Foster used an STM to directly manipulate 35 Xe atoms, successfully writing the letters IBM on an Ni substrate. Direct human manipulation of atoms was a great discovery. Some of Feynman’s other ideas such as molecular machines are still being implemented. Moreover, Feynman’s dream of storing the Encyclopedia Britannica on the tip of a pin via manipulation of atoms is entirely possible. Some even estimate that the entire collection of the US Library of Congress can be stored within an Si chip 0.3 m in size. The physical theories and predictions made by this outstanding physicist have once again proven to be both correct and powerful.

1.3.2 Preliminary Preparation Stage

After a long germination period, the initiative created by Feynman in 1959 as a call for advances in nanomaterials stumbled into its second stage of development. This stage was characterized by a limited following in the mainstream scientific community. Only a few scientists studied the subject in a fragmented, decentralized, and slow manner. Thus, this should be viewed as a preparation period. This preparatory stage took place over the course of 30 years, but we will briefly describe only the most important events that took place within it.

In 1961, Japanese scientist Kubo conducted a theoretical study of quantum size effects associated with metal nanoparticles [8]. With the decrease of the number of atoms in the particle, the electron energy levels near the Fermi level split from their former continuous state to discrete states, with the average spacing between the electron levels inversely proportional to the number of electrons in the particle. When level spacing is greater than heat energy, magnetic energy, static power, photon energy, and condensed energy from the superconducting state, so-called quantum effects such as the famous Kubo effect are produced. These effects are different from those experienced by macro-sized objects. Kubo theory plays a role in promoting experimental research on nanoparticles.

In 1970, Benjamin invented the mechanical alloying (MA) method of alloy powder preparation [9]. MA is performed by inducing a solid-state reaction between elemental powders via hard ball milling and is also referred to as the ball-milling method in the literature.

Nanomaterial research grew after the start of the 1980s. In that decade, the most prominent work was published by the Gleiter group [10] regarding the preparation of metal nanopowders that could then be compressed into bulk materials and by the Smalley Group [11] on the discovery of C60. Work by the Gleiter Group that was published in 1986 produced a breakthrough in nanomaterials research.

In 1985, Kroto, Smalley, Curl, et al. prepared carbon atom clusters by using a laser to heat and vaporize graphite electrodes in toluene. Mass spectrometry found lines from C60 and a few from C70. The study also found that C60 has a closed structure made from 60 carbon atoms. It includes 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons and is structured like a football. C60 is known in the literature as a Bucky ball, and the related series of materials are known as Fullerenes. This name is borrowed from that of Richard Buckminster Fuller (1895–1983), an architect who invented high-energy aggregate geometry, which has been used to build polyhedral vaults. Moreover, Kroto published an article with the architect's name in the title: C60: Buckminsterfullerene. Fig. 1.3A shows the structure of C60, and (B) shows the US Pavilion in the 1967 Canada Montreal World Exposition Fair. The building is 60 m tall and the two structures shown in Fig. 1.3A and B are quite similar. Because Kroto, Smalley, and Curl first discovered C60 and determined its structure, they won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996.

Figure 1.3 C60 structure (A) and the US Pavilion in the 1967 Canada Montreal World’s Exposition Fair (B).

In the mid-1980s, Denmark van Wonterghem and others at the Technical University of Denmark as well as their UK collaborators [12] prepared amorphous alloy nanoparticles via chemical reduction. This is a very economical method of nanopowder preparation.

1.3.3 Rapid-Development Stage

Through development and preparation, nanomaterials gradually established a reputation in the scientific community, winning the attention of more and more scientists. Thus, nanomaterials entered their rapid-development stage. In the last few years of the 20th century, some have referred to this as nanofever. The rapid development of nanomaterials both firmly established their position and identified possible applications. The rapid development associated with this stage can be supported by the total number of papers published and patents issued. Fig. 1.4 shows the total annual distribution of nanotechnology papers worldwide from 1991 to 2000. The rates of publication are growing quickly. There are no statistics available for the time period before 1990, which suggests that such publications were rare.

Figure 1.4 Nanotechnology papers published worldwide by year from 1991 to 2000.

Fig. 1.5 shows the distribution of nanotechnology patents among 14 leading industrialized countries between 1976 and 2002, as determined by the group led by Roco of the US National Science Foundation (NSF) [13]. This survey report is informative because it includes distribution by country and by subject and also identifies patents by large companies in the United States. The trend is similar to that shown in Fig. 1.4. Prior to 1990, very few patents appear worldwide. Since 1990, and especially after 1995, the rate of patent issuance increases dramatically. During this time period, scientists conducted a wide range of research, identification, and exploration activities regarding nanomaterial performance and applications. Because there are so many research results, we can only discuss a few of them.

Figure 1.5 Annual distribution of patents issued between 1976 and 2002 within 14 major industrial countries [13].

One important signal that an academic field has become established is its ability to support subject-specific international academic meetings. In July 1990, Baltimore held the first International Conference on Nano Science and Technology in conjunction with the fifth International STM Conference. This conference presented nanomaterial science and nanobiological studies as named subjects. This clearly marks the official birth of nanomaterials science as a discipline.

In 1991, Japanese scientist Iijima discovered carbon nanotubes (CNTs) using high-resolution electron microscopy [14]. The nanotubes Iijima discovered were multiwalled carbon nanotubes, which present spiral structures along their cylindrical axes. Two years later, Iijima [15] and Bethune et al. [16] independently observed single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT). Thus, the study of CNTs began.

In 1996, Sandia National Laboratory announced that they had created IC-controlled smart MEMS. The scientists embedded electric motors into thin, etched channels, creating an Si chip only 1 mm² with entire MEMS embedded. In 1997, Australia’s Cornell and others [17] created biometric sensors by combining a biological discrimination mechanism with physical conversion technology.

In 1998, the Dekker Group [18] and Martel et al. [19] developed a carbon nanotube field emission transistor. In November 1999, Yale University announced on the Internet that a research coalition led by Reed of Rice University had developed molecular-scale storage for the first time. In August 1999, Chou of Princeton University [20] found that one can directly form arbitrarily shaped polymer microstructures without use of a set of common etch platemaking technology, including exposing, chemical developer, and etching photoresist. Such kind of lithography induced self-assembly technology plays an important role in polymer-based electronic and optoelectronic devices.

On January 21, 2000, US President Bill Clinton made a famous speech on nanotechnology for the Nanomaterials Physics Foundation. During this speech at the CIT, he stressed that the United States would implement its National Nanotechnology Innovation (NNI) program. US authorities in science and technology had prepared this for many years, with the goal of enabling the United States to be a global science and technology leader. The plan was submitted to Congress in Autumn of 2000 and approved in November. Thus, key legislation was created to help the United States lead the field of nanotechnology.

During this period, China made significant progress in nanomaterials and nanotechnology. In 1993, the Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing Vacuum Physics Laboratory successfully wrote the word China by manipulating atoms. This marks the entry of China into the field of nanotechnology. In the first half of 1999, Beijing University assembled SWCNTs standing on metal surfaces for the first time in history and developed the world’s finest STM probes.

1.3.4 Industrial and Commercial Application Stage

Basic research on nanomaterials began to take place in quantity at the beginning of the 21st century. Since then, nanomaterials have found their use in industrial and commercial applications. Not all nanomaterial applications have been explored, but gradual progress is taking place. Of course, because of so-called nanofever promotion, some people believe that nanomaterials will be everywhere soon, and various products have been advertised as nano regardless of whether they contain nanomaterials. This misuse of terminology has nothing to do with science.

The Chairman Roco of the NSET Subcommittee of the United State National Science and Technology Council (several US nanotechnology files come from this individual) published statements in 2002 that argue that industrial and commercial nanotechnology applications can be divided into four stages.

Phase I began in 2001 and was referred to as the passive nanostructure phase. It focused on applications of nanomaterials as coatings, nanoparticles, nanostructured materials, polymers, and ceramic materials. Typically, these are not active nanomaterial applications.

Phase II started in 2005 and was referred to as the active nanostructure stage. It included nanomaterial applications such as transistors, amplifiers, actuators, and applications of adaptive mechanisms. Thus, active nanomaterial applications were employed.

Phase III started in 2010 and was referred to as the three-dimensional nanosystem stage. It involves nonuniform nanostructures and self-assembly of nanomaterials.

Phase IV is expected to start in 2020 and was referred to as the molecular nanosystem stage. It involves nanomaterials used biological simulations and design of new applications for nonuniform nanomolecular systems.

If Roco’s prediction is correct, the most comprehensive nanomaterial applications will not appear until 20 years later.

1.4 Importance of Nanomaterials

The importance of nanomaterials can be seen from advances in national and regional awareness of nanotechnology and large investments in the field.

1.4.1 Nanotechnology Programs of Leading Countries

The National Nanotechnology Initiative proposed by the United States became active in 2000 but actually began as early as 1996. Sector discussion, argumentation, project directions, and implementation plans were publicly announced in January 2000 by President Clinton after several years of development. This is attributed to the senior US scientific sector’s highly attention and repeal stressing to nanomaterials and technology in many years. For example, the US NSF Director, who also served as the Presidential science adviser, Dr. Neal Lane, stated at a congressional hearing in April 1998, If I was asked an area of science and engineering that will most likely produce the breakthrough of tomorrow, I would point to nanoscale science and engineering. In March 1998, the President’s previous adviser of science and technology, Dr. Gibbons, claimed nanotechnology as one of five key technologies for the 21st century economic development. In fact, a US NNI paper was prepared with a subtitle to lead the next industrial revolution. However, this subtitle was removed before it was submitted in July 2000. On January 16, 2003, the US Senate passed the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Exhibition Act. On May 9, 2003, they adopted a 2003 Nanotechnology Research and Development Act as well. All these illustrate a strong US emphasis on nanotechnology.

Either at nearly the same time or sometime later, the world’s leading countries and regions followed the United States to create programs for nanoscience and nanotechnology development at the national or regional levels.

1.4.2 Nanotechnology Investment Among Leading Countries

Since 1997, the United States has made significant nanotechnology investments to ensure that it has a leading position in nanoscience and technology. As shown in Table 1.1 [21], this investment has increased 11 times between 1997 and 2006.

Table 1.1

aOther countries and regions include Australia, Canada, countries within Eastern Europe, Israel, China, South Korea, and Singapore.

bFor 2006, the US NNI demanded nanotechnology investments of $1054 million. The table shows the real estimated value.

cThis is the 2007 USA NNI requested total nanotechnology investment, which should increase by 21.3% relative to the amount provided in 2006.

In addition to the United States, many world’s major countries and groups of countries, including the European Union (EU), Japan, and China, have invested in nanotechnology. Data on these investments are presented in Table 1.1 [21]. Such investments have increased year over year since 1997. However, as shown in Fig. 1.6, investment growth slowed before 2000. However, the pace accelerated after 2000, amply demonstrating that the world was focused on nanoscience and technology at the beginning of the new century.

Figure 1.6 Nanotechnology investments in major industrialized countries [21].

Nanotechnology has been important to China since the mid-1980s. The government’s science and technology administration established the Climb Program and other related important projects. Subsequently, investments in nanoscience and technology from the Ministry of Science and Technology and other relevant departments led to joint issuance of a national program for nanotechnology development (2001–10). This requested forming the NNI system step by step within the Tenth Five period. After a demonstration period in 2001, the Basic research in nanotechnology program was formally activated in 2002. On March 22, 2002, a National Nanoscience Center was unveiled at the Institute of Chemistry. In March 2003, authorities announced that the state would invest about $30 million to establish the National Nanoscience Centers via the Chinese Academy of Sciences, while Chinese Academy of Sciences nanotechnology center, Peking University and Tsinghua University applied as the initial launch organization. As China is not a developed country, there is a large difference in nanotechnology investment in China compared with in the developed