Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities: Empowering a Sustainable, Competitive, and Secure Twenty-First Century

By Nasir El Bassam

Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities: Empowering a Sustainable, Competitive, and Secure Twenty-First Century, Second Edition, is a fully revised reference on advances in achieving successful energy transition. Addressing the highly dynamic, complex and multidimensional process of a dominant socio-technical system transforming into another, this up-to-date reference addresses all stages of this complex process with data and figures to demonstrate how to tackle the process of changing a society's energy circumstance. This new edition provides an updated picture of renewables in communities and their use, covering energy concepts, strategies, prospects and combining all aspects to provide a roadmap to self-sustainable development.

Addressing the influence of society on the development of renewable industry, this book provides guidelines with case studies, along with trends and innovative practices regarding renewable energy and their applications with a goal of successfully establishing smooth energy transitions in self-sustainable communities.

• Includes case studies that provide solutions for future decentralized energy supply problems
• Contains fully updated equations, data sections and figures for all energy technologies
• Shares a blueprint for the development of self-sustainable Integrated Renewable Communities

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Jan 21, 2021
• ISBN: 9780323851398

Book preview

Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities

Empowering a Sustainable, Competitive, and Secure Twenty-First Century

Second Edition

Editor

Nasir El Bassam

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Citations

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter One. What Kind of Energy Does the World Need?

Chapter 1.1. Distributed renewable energy

Chapter 1.2. Using distributed energy resources to meet the trilemma challenges

Chapter 1.3. Scope of the book

Chapter Two. Restructuring future energy generation and supply

2.1. Basic challenges

2.2. Current and future energy supplies

2.3. Peak oil

2.4. Availability of alternative resources

2.5. Outlook

Chapter three. Road map of distributed renewable energy communities

3.1. Energy and sustainable development

3.2. Community involvement

3.3. Facing the challenges

3.4. The concept of the food and agriculture organization, an integrated energy community

3.5. Global approach

3.6. Basic and extended needs

3.7. Representative energy plant species for different climate regions

3.8. Regional implementation

3.9. Opportunities driven by energy sector coupling

Chapter four. Planning of integrated renewable communities

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Scenario 1

4.3. Scenario 2

4.4. Case study I: implementation of integrated energy farm under climatic conditions of central Europe

4.5. Case study II: arid and semiarid regions

Chapter Five. The water–energy–food nexus

5.1. Determination of community requirements for energy, water, and food

5.2. Modeling approaches

5.3. Data acquisition

5.4. Determination of energy and food requirements

5.5. Energy potential analysis

5.6. Data collection and processing for energy use

5.7. Wind energy

5.8. Biomass

Chapter Six. Energy basics

6.1. Basics of energy

6.2. Special topics relating to electricity

6.3. Global contribution

6.4. Resources and applications

Chapter Seven. Solar energy: Technologies and options

7.1. Worldwide installed capacities

7.2. Photovoltaic

7.3. Global PV market

7.4. Applications

7.5. Accumulation of soiling on solar energy systems

7.6. Concentrating solar thermal power

7.7. Solar thermal collectors

7.8. Solar cookers and solar ovens

Chapter Eight. Wind energy

8.1. Wind power and wind energy

8.2. Types of wind turbines

8.3. Global market

8.4. Offshore wind farm Dogger Bank

8.5. Small wind turbines

Chapter Nine. Energy resources, global contribution, and applications

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Bioenergy and biofuels: innovation and technology progress

9.3. Characteristics and potentials

9.4. Solid biofuels

9.5. Biogas and biomethane

9.6. Conversion systems to heat, power, and electricity

9.7. Outlook

Chapter Ten. Hydropower

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Global production of hydropower energy

10.3. Types of hydropower plants

10.4. Types of turbines

10.5. Relative efficiencies

10.6. Assessment of hydropower potential

10.7. Impact of climate change on hydropower generation

Chapter Eleven. Marine energy

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Ocean thermal energy conversion

11.3. Advantages and disadvantages

11.4. Ocean tidal power

11.5. Ocean wave power

11.6. Environmental and economic challenges

Chapter Twelve. Geothermal energy

12.1. Introduction

12.2. The history of geothermal energy

12.3. Geothermal heat pumps

12.4. Geothermal electricity

12.5. Environmental effects, benefits, and economic costs

12.6. The future of geothermal energy

Chapter Thirteen. Energy storage, smart grids, and electric vehicles

13.1. Energy storage

13.2. Smart grids

13.3. Electric vehicles

13.4. Future developments

Chapter Fourteen. Current distributed renewable energy in rural and urban communities

14.1. Thisted, Denmark: 100% renewable energy community

14.2. Samsø island

14.3. Energy island of VindØ

14.4. Kampala, Uganda taxi-bike drivers move to electric bikes

14.5. Rural community of Jühnde

14.6. Containerized solar minigrid, Fanidiama village, Mali

14.7. Decentralized desalination systems powered by solar energy in Maasai, Tanzania

14.8. Road map to renewable energy in remote communities in Australia

14.9. Iraq Dream Homes

14.10. Renewables in Africa

14.11. Renewables in India

14.12. Distributed renewable energy and solar oases for deserts and arid regions: the DESERTEC concept

14.13. Vatican City

Chapter Fifteen. Ownership, citizens participation and economic trends

15.1. Community ownership

15.2. Citizens' participation

15.3. The Danish ownership model

15.4. Integration of the energy supply by public ownership

15.5. Economic impacts

15.6. Socioeconomic benefits and economic impacts of Renewables 2019

15.7. Actions for broadening the ownership of renewables

15.8. Global investment's in renewables

15.9. Costs of renewables

Chapter Sixteen. The importance of green mobility

16.1. Environmental and social impacts

16.2. Mobility on the road

16.3. Mobility on the rail

16.4. Mobility on the water

16.5. Mobility in the air

16.6. Rethinking mobility: are there any alternatives to current models?

Chapter Seventeen. Water desalination, purification, irrigation, and wastewater treatment

17.1. Introduction

17.2. Renewable energy and pumps

17.3. Renewable energy and water purification

17.4. Renewable energy and desalination

17.5. Renewable energy and wastewater treatment

17.6. Renewable energy and farm irrigation

Chapter Eighteen. Technologies at the experimental stages

18.1. Introduction

18.2. Fusion power

18.3. Antimatter energy

18.4. Atmospheric electricity

18.5. Microalgae

18.6. Osmotic power

18.7. Advanced hydrogen technology

18.8. Outlook

Chapter Nineteen. Drivers for digitalization of energy

Chapter Twenty. Blockchain

20.1. Characteristics of blockchain

20.2. Blockchain technology background

Chapter Twenty one. Grid challenges: Integration of distributed renewables with the national grid

21.1. The electricity distribution grid

21.2. Siemens to install smart distribution networks in Iraqi Provinces

21.3. Penetration of renewables in the grid

21.4. Development direction, cyberattacks, and outlook

Chapter Twenty Two. Marshall plan for Empowering Urban and Rural Communities: Strategies toward poverty and migration reduction

22.1. Introduction

22.2. Integrated energy settlement, Wierthe, Germany

Chapter 22.3. Integrated energy settlement in Rousse, Bulgaria

Chapter 22.4. Sustainable development of village of Kiga, Iran

Chapter 22.5. Empowering of three urban cities in Africa (Empowering Urban Cities in Africa)

Chapter Twenty three. Our vision for peace via renewables: Power, water and food for all

23.1. Key words solar oases

23.2. Procedure

23.3. Concluding remarks and outlook

Appendix One. Glossary

Appendix Two. List of energy abbreviations and acronyms

Appendix Three. Conversion factors

Appendix Four. Inventory of photovoltaic systems for sustainable rural development

Index

Copyright

Elsevier

Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-821605-7

For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Brian Romer

Acquisitions Editor: Lisa Reading

Editorial Project Manager: Leticia Lima

Production Project Manager: Manju Thirumalaivasan

Cover Designer: Greg Harris

Typeset by TNQ Technologies

Dedication

Dedicated to:

Preben Maegaard

The renewable energy pioneer, founder and director emeritus of Nordic Folkecenter, Denmark, co-author of the first edition

Citations

The human being has three ways to learn: first, by reflection, which is the noblest; second, by imitation, which is the easiest; and third, by experience, which is the bitterest.

Confucius

Off-grid renewable energy systems have transformed our ability to deliver secure, affordable electricity to rural communities all over the world, and are playing a vital role in breaking a cycle of energy poverty that has held back socio-economic progress for hundreds of millions of people.

Adnan Amin, Director-General, International Renewable Energy Agency

Coming together is a beginning, keeping together is progress, and working together is success.

Henry Ford

Foreword

Since the first publication of the book in 2013, much has changed regarding distributed renewable energy technologies for off-grid communities. With the third decade of the 21st century presenting humanity with serious and profound challenges that connect health, food, water, energy, and interwoven international economies, the second edition is a welcome and much needed addition to essential reading for students, policy-makers, and an informed public that wants to be involved in the ongoing energy transformation and transition.

The book builds on the strengths of its first edition, which include a clear presentation of the various renewable energy technologies themselves, together with graphics and tables that connect the easily comprehended theoretical framework to many practical and tangible examples. These have been detailed and expanded to include multiple case studies that allow the reader to see the case in point; these technologies are rapidly being deployed throughout the world and have an enormous impact on people's occupations and lives.

I had the good fortune of being able to use Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities in the graduate program of Santa Clara University's School of Engineering. The course, Distributed and Renewable Energy for the Developing World, took the book as its text and inspiration. As such, and with the generous guidance and advice of the book's primary author and editor, Professor Dr. Nasir El Bassam, it surveyed energy engineering and entrepreneurship in emerging market countries, with an emphasis on strategies for coping with the absence of a grid. It analyzed strategies for energy generation, transmission, and storage at the household, community, and regional scales, drawing from sector and case studies in the developing world.

In reading the second edition of book, one finds that it continues to connect and explain concepts using a unique and easily comprehended framework. This guiding principle is described near the introduction to the book and is called the energy trilemma. Briefly put, it is the nexus among environmental sustainability, energy, equity, and energy security. These are the key concepts for providing economic development and prosperity for more than 7.6 billion people as the economy of the world is reconstructed and configured to be more resilient. Make no mistake, the book presents a road map for basic needs, as well as work that has been done and the work that remains. It connects both energy generation and use with food production and economic development so that engineers, scientists, planners, and financial institutions can help to determine a suitable mix of appropriate technologies and policy approaches for a given location. The locations presented include those in India, Iraq, Vatican City, Germany, and Tunisia.

From its beginning, after describing the trilemma challenge, the book carefully and systematically describes the necessary restructuring for energy generation and supply as well as demand, and then transitions to present the road map for renewable energy communities, as well as planning and scenarios that include integrated renewable energy communities and farm production. Both arid and semiarid regions are considered. There and throughout the book, energy and food requirements are connected and described, together with modeling approaches. As is typical for each chapter, a healthy set of references is provided so that the reader can continue to explore those topics of particular interest further.

The energy potential analysis from renewable energy resource availability is discussed with connections to various forms of solar energy. Wind energy is described (at small, medium, and large scales). A detailed description follows of the various types of biomass and bioenergy systems, all tied to distributed and small-scale production. Hydrogen generation (as an energy carrier) is then described, as well as hydropower and water power for both land-based and marine energy-generating systems. Of course, geothermal, energy storage, smart grids, and electric vehicles are covered in subsequent chapters. A feature much appreciated by students and policy-makers alike is the comprehensive coverage of the whole range of renewable energy options that are available.

Throughout the book and in several appendices, case studies are presented for various technological approaches suitable for particular countries and regions. Another unique part of the second edition of the book is the consideration of mobility and transportation in fuels, infrastructure, and approaches. It is also refreshing to see the discussion on rethinking mobility and how it ties to urban planning. Yet another addition to the second edition is water purification in all of its various forms.

The book's final chapters complete the work by describing the connections among energy resiliency, digitization, blockchain, and the energy sector. The author presents a Marshall Plan for empowering urban and rural communities and the transition to an achievable vision for regional and world peace. Because the book contains a glossary as well as abbreviations and acronyms, and considering the style and format of its presentation, readers from a variety of backgrounds will easily read and understand it. It achieves a holistic approach, yet it is detailed.

A multitude of distributed energy systems throughout the world are preferred over central power plant generation schemes because of such concerns. In addition, they allow for improved access, social equity, and rapid scale-up through incremental additions to existing projects that are viable and cost-effective. This provides investors and the financial community with the confidence that they need to use the concepts for distributed renewable energies to empower off-grid communities in the 21st century to create sustainable, competitive, secure, and prosperous societies.

Greg P. Smestad, PhD

San José, California

Preface

Energy is directly related to the most critical economic and social issues that affect sustainable development: mobility, job creation, income levels and access to social services, gender and racial disparity, population growth, food production, climate change, environmental quality, industry, communications, and regional and global security issues. Many of the crises on our planet arise from the desire to secure supplies of raw materials, particularly energy sources, at low prices. The International Energy Agency forecasts that the world primary energy demand will grow by 1.6%/year on average up to 2030.

Current approaches to energy are unsustainable and nonrenewable. Today, the world's energy supply is largely based on fossil fuels, nuclear power, hydro, and others (IEA).

International Energy Agency, global annual average change in energy production by fuel, 1971–2017.

These sources of energy will not last forever and have proven to be contributors to our environmental problems. In less than three centuries since the industrial revolution, humanity has already burned roughly half of the fossil fuels that accumulated under the earth's surface over hundreds of millions of years. Nuclear power is also based on a limited resource (uranium), and the use of nuclear power creates such incalculable risks that nuclear power plants cannot be insured. After 50 years of intensive research, no single, safe, long-term disposal site for radioactive waste has been found.

Renewable energy offers our planet a chance to reduce carbon emissions, clean the air, and put our civilization on a more sustainable footing. Renewable sources of energy are an essential part of an overall strategy of sustainable development. They help reduce dependence on energy imports, thereby ensuring a sustainable supply and climate protection. Furthermore, renewable energy sources can help improve the competitiveness of industries over the long run and have a positive impact on regional development and employment. Renewable energies will provide a more diversified, balanced, and stable pool of energy sources.

The main targets of this book will be a comprehensive and solid contribution to enlighten the vital role of developing decentralized and distributed renewable energy production and supply for off-grid communities along with their technical feasibilities to meet the growing demand for energy, and to face current and future challenges of limited fossil and nuclear fuel reserves, global climate change, and financial crises. It presents various options and case studies related to the potential of renewable energies and future transition options along with their environmental, economic, and social dimensions. With rapid and continued growth in the world, it is no longer a question of when we will incorporate various renewable energy sources into the mix, but how fast the transition can be managed.

The impact of COVID-19 on renewable energy; how economic stimulus packages need to be built around renewable energy and energy efficiency; how to continue informing, influencing, and debating online to advance the use of renewable energy; and perhaps most important, how any crisis is an opportunity to step back, learn, adjust, and change. The momentum behind COVID-19 is enormous. We have an unprecedented opportunity to accelerate much needed change! For both climate and sustainable development reasons, we need to question the way we are doing things: how we produce, consume and finance production of goods, how we move those goods and provide services, how we trade and share resources, and how we create a more robust and resilient infrastructure. COVID-19 raises the same fundamental questions but with an urgency that, unfortunately, those of us in the climate and development community have been unable to communicate successfully (Rana Adib, Executive Director, REN21, 2020). This book is an attempt to outline the necessary information and concepts so that we can, as many are calling it, Build Back Better https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Build_Back_Better.

I hope that this book offers a platform and resource for planning to foster an improvement in energy generation and supply. We wish it to contribute to enlightening and understanding of the vital economic and social roles that distributed renewable energy can provide in meeting the growing demand for energy and facing current and future challenges of limited fossil fuel reserves, global climate change, and equitable economic development for all.

IEA, Global annual average change in energy production by fuel, 1971-2017, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/global-annual-average-change-in-energy-production-by-fuel-1971-2017.

The current century will witness a major transformation in how energy is acquired, stored, and used globally. At this point, nearly one-fifth of the way through the 21st century, changes are clearly discernible, but more profound ones are still to come. The challenges we face in carrying out these transformations range from scientific and technological to societal, cultural, and economic involving how we live, work, and play. The impetus for these changes comes from the deep impacts that both developed and developing societies have had on our planet's environment during the past century and projections going forward regarding what will happen globally if we do not act. Real and projected urbanization together with growing global population make it clear that we must act now. The transition to a climate-neutral society and carbon-free energy generation is both an urgent challenge and an opportunity to build a better future for all.

Nasir El Bassam, Ph.D.

International Research Centre for Renewable Energy, www.ifeed.org.

Chairperson, WCRE, World Council for Renewable Energy www.wcre.org.

Scientific Advisory Board, Federal Association of Regenerative Mobility, Berlin www.brm-ev.de.

Acknowledgments

Most grateful thanks are due to Marcia Lawton Schlichting, who did the most arduous and time-consuming work of preparing the manuscript.

I would also like to thank Greg P. Smestad, Thamer Ahmed Mohamed, Daniele Pagani, and Lothar Schlichting for their contributions to the book.

The editor wishes to thank the supporting team at Elsevier, the Acquisitions Editor, Lisa Reading; Editorial Project Manager, Letícia Lima; Production Project Manager, Manju Thirumalaivasan; and others for the substantial assistance provided.

Chapter One: What Kind of Energy Does the World Need?

N. El Bassam     International Research Centre for Renewable Energy, IFFED.org, Germany

Abstract

1.1.1 What kind of energy does the world need?

1.1.1.1 Introduction

1.1.2 Distributed renewable energy for energy access

References

Abstract

1.2.1 Energy trilemma index

1.2.2 Dimensions

1.2.3 Monitoring the sustainability of national energy systems

Reference

Abstract

1.3.1 Distribution

1.3.2 Distributed energy generation

1.3.3 Distributed energy supply

1.3.4 Community power

1.3.5 Off-grid systems

1.3.6 Concluding remarks

Further reading

Along with the developments of the past three-quarters of a century have come disparities, energy injustice, and major environmental threats, in particular climate change. So, what should governments do to quell the civil unrest and growing populism resulting from these inequalities?

Certainly, in our view, one clear answer is to transform our energy system to a renewables-based distributed system resulting in much greater economic opportunities for all people, energy justice, and environmental recovery and improvement (David Renné, Sunburst ISES Newsletter, 2019).

There were also side events where other important publications were presented. For example, Rana Abib, Executive Director of REN 21, announced two new publications: Perspectives on the Global Renewable Energy Transition and Asia and the Pacific Renewable Energy Status Report. The Perspectives report provides key takeaways from the 2019 Global Status Report, highlighting important facts such as that renewables accounted for 64% of all new electricity generation in 2018; and that same year, nine countries generated more than 20% of electricity with wind and solar photovoltaics (PV). Furthermore, cities are taking a leading role in adopting some of the most ambitious targets globally, and at least 100 cities worldwide now use 70% or more renewable electricity. However, the report also notes that slow growth in the use of renewables in heating and cooling needs to be addressed to achieve decarburization in all of our energy sectors.

The point I would like to make here is that the current global unrest that we are seeing, which at times has become violent, especially when economic and political factors come into play, has in part been caused by, but also can be solved by, the way we produce and use energy to fuel our economic system. We are already seeing massive global demonstrations against the way in which we use energy, which has led to the climate crisis, such as the peaceful demonstrations by FridaysforFuture protesting the lack of government action on climate change, and climate demonstrations adopting civil disobedience tactics such as those of the Extinction Rebellion (BBC, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-48607989). The movement is reported critically in part because many of its protests are not legal. For this reason, arrests have been made worldwide. On Oct. 14, 2019, the London police issued a demonstration ban for the movement; it lifted the ban 4  days later because the measure was no longer necessary because the wave of protests had ended. The British High Court of Justice brought an action against the legality of the ban on Nov. 6, 2019.

ISES is one of many key like-minded organizations working hard to communicate how the renewable energy transformation will create immense and more equitable economic benefits, energy access and security, and environmental recovery.

The installed capacity of solar PV systems has grown from 23  GW at the start of 2010 to around 600  GW currently and solar thermal systems from 203  GW-thermal to over 500  GW-thermal during that period. Over the same period, wind energy installed capacity grew from 159 to over 600  GW and concentrating solar thermal power grew from less than 1  GW to over 5.5  GW. Today, the global power sector is powered by over 26% renewable energy, and renewables surpass traditional energy sources for new installed power capacity around the world. Government policies and national targets for renewable energy deployments have grown significantly through the decade, and utility acceptance of variable renewable energy supply has expanded in many countries. Clearly, the 2010s saw great strides in a global clean energy transformation; for all purposes, it could be called the decade of renewable energy.

However, during this decade, the scope of our challenge in addressing key energy-related issues such as environmental impacts, energy security, and access to finance also became paramount. At the start of the decade, there was hope that annual global CO2 emissions had peaked at around 30  Gt and would start to decrease owing to all of the clean-energy initiatives and growing acknowledgment of the need to combat climate change. Nevertheless, despite the signing of the Paris Climate Agreement in the middecade, annual global CO2 concentrations actually increased and are now around 33.1  Gt, much of this still resulting from coal-fired power generation and the use of fossil fuels in the transportation sector. We see these challenges as indicators that ISES's work is nowhere near completed: despite the impressive growth of solar technologies from laboratory experiments to commercial success that has happened since the early days of ISES, dating back to the middle of the past century, much work remains to urge governments and civil society to be more ambitious in addressing climate change, and to articulate the multitude of environmental, economic, and energy security benefits of a 100% renewable energy system (Renné, D., Sunburst ISES Newsletter 2019). These numbers are derived from the REN21 2019 Global Status Report and the IEA Global Energy and CO2 Status Report.

A FERC report confirmed the rise of renewables above coal, gas, oil, and nuclear combined. According to a review by the SUN DAY Campaign of data issued by FERC, the mix of renewable energy sources (i.e., biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, and wind) provided 57.26% of new US electrical generating capacity added in 2019, swamping that provided by coal, natural gas, oil, and nuclear power combined (Kenneth Bossong, 2020).

FERC's latest monthly Energy Infrastructure Update report (with data through Dec. 31, 2019) revealed that renewable sources (i.e., biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, and wind) accounted for 11,857  MW of new generating capacity by the end of the year. That is a third more (33.97%) capacity than that of natural gas (8557  MW), nuclear (155  MW), oil (77  MW), and coal (62  MW) combined.

Renewables have also surpassed 22% (i.e., 22.06%) of the nation's total available installed generating capacity, further expanding their lead over coal capacity (20.89%). Among renewables, wind can boast the largest installed electrical generating capacity: 8.51% of the US total, followed by hydropower (8.41%), solar (3.49%), biomass (1.33%), and geothermal (0.32%). Thus, wind and solar combined account for 12.0% of the nation's electrical generating capacity.

Moreover, FERC foresees renewables dramatically expanding their lead over fossil fuels and nuclear power in terms of new capacity additions in coming years. Net generating capacity additions (i.e., proposed additions under construction minus proposed retirements) for renewable sources total 48,254  MW: wind: 26,403  MW; solar: 19,973  MW; hydropower: 1460  MW; biomass: 240  MW; and geothermal: 178  MW.

By comparison, net additions for natural gas total 21,090  MW whereas the installed capacities for coal, nuclear, and oil are projected to drop by 18,857, 3391, and 3085  MW respectively. In fact, FERC reported no new coal capacity in the pipeline over coming years.

Thus, although net new renewable energy capacity is projected to be nearly 50,000  MW greater within the next few years, that of fossil fuels and nuclear power combined will decline by over 4200  MW. New wind capacity alone will be greater than that of natural gas, whereas that of wind and solar combined will more than double new gas capacity.

Moreover, if FERC's data prove correct, renewable sources will account for more than a quarter of the nation's total available installed generating capacity (25.16%) whereas coal will drop to 18.63% and that of nuclear and oil will decrease to 8.29 and 2.95%, respectively. Natural gas will increase its share, but only slightly, from 44.67 to 44.78%.

As the executive director of the SUN DAY Campaign, I believe that the rapid growth of renewables and the corresponding drop in electrical production by coal and oil provides a glimmer of hope for slowing the pace of climate change. In addition, renewables' continued expansion in the near future, as forecast by FERC, suggests that with supportive governmental policies, these technologies could provide an even greater share of total US electrical generation (https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/2020/03/09/new-ferc-report-confirms-the-rise-of-renewables-above-coal-gas-oil-and-nuclear-combined/?utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=rew_weekly_newsletter&utm_source=enl&utm_content=2020-03-11).

On Mar. 3, 2020, the Government of the Australian state of Tasmania announced a long-term strategy for the island, in which it set not a 100% but a 200% renewable energy target for 2040. The announcement, made by Tasmanian Premier Peter Gutwein, follows a previous commitment to 100% renewable energy by 2022.

The new strategy aims to cover Tasmania's domestic energy supply, but also to export renewable energy to other parts of Australia and potentially to other countries. The main technologies, which will achieve this goal and make Tasmania a green powerhouse, will be hydropower, wind power, and hydrogen.

Gutwein declared that a detailed Renewable Energy Action Plan would be released in April and that hydrogen production for domestic use and for export latest by 2027 would be an important part of the plan. The government intended to boost the rollout of the state's hydrogen economy with $50 million in public funds.

The Tasmanian government expected that the new plan would lead not only to new jobs and a substantial contribution to reducing Australia's greenhouse gas emissions, but potentially to a combined investment of $7.1 billion into the Tasmanian economy (http://www.premier.tas.gov.au/releases/state_of_the_the_state_address).

Tackling poverty, which affects one-third of the world's population, and serving the needs of the unserved should be our priorities. We have the knowledge and technologies to achieve these goals. What is needed is for all to be honest, faithful, and credible—to us as well as to others, to live in peace and dignity: not only for part of the world, but for all.

Lack of sufficient energy supply leads to a lack of development. In countries and regions with energy shortages, populations suffer the most. It is imperative that with the era of fossil fuel coming to an end, future initiatives for energy supply be based on renewable energy.

With this book, we pledge to use our knowledge, voices, and determination to:

- Persevere, each in our own way, nurtured by the cultural wellsprings that are our heritage, whether from Asia, Africa, Europe, South and North America, or elsewhere; and.

- Join hands and work together, inspired, r-energized, and committed

TO DO ALL WE CAN … TO MAKE REAL THE WORLD OF OUR DREAMS!

Chapter 1.1

Distributed renewable energy

Strategies toward achieving energy security, equity, and the environmental sustainability of energy systems throughout the transition process

Abstract

We have reached our limits as the result of the excessive use of fossil fuels and related technologies that benefit a few financially but leave the rest to cope with the consequences. Developing the energy supply would automatically improve the major issues of sustainable development.

Keywords: Distributed renewable energy, Types of energy access

1.1.1. What kind of energy does the world need?

1.1.1.1. Introduction

It is no secret that we have reached our limits as a result of the excessive use of fossil fuels and related technologies that benefit a few financially but leave the rest to cope with the consequences. Among these unfortunate outcomes are health hazards, security issues, dwindling public services, and restricted access to education and job opportunities.

Developing the energy supply would automatically improve the major issues of sustainable development: poverty, job creation, income levels, and access to social and economic services, gender disparity, population growth, agricultural production, climate change, the environment, security issues, and migration. Today, around two billion people still lack access to a reliable supply of electricity. Our challenge in the 21st century will be to provide energy for a further five to seven billion people while cutting emissions by half.

By 2050, humanity will need three earths to supply enough resources to meet the growing demands for energy. We cannot continue to manage our resources in such a negligent manner. This option does not exist. We have to consider the needs of future generations.

With rapid and continued population growth in the world, depletion of natural resources, and climate change, it is no longer a question of when we will incorporate various renewable energy sources into the mix, but how fast the transition can be managed.

In less than three centuries since the industrial revolution, humanity has already burned roughly half of the fossil fuels that accumulated under the earth's surface over hundreds of millions of years. Nuclear power is also based on a limited resource (uranium).

Although some fossil energy resources might last a little longer than predicted, especially if additional reserves are discovered, the main problem of scarcity will remain, and this represents the greatest challenge to humanity. Renewable energy offers our planet a chance to reduce carbon emissions, clean the air, and put our civilization on a more sustainable footing.

Renewable sources of energy are an essential part of an overall strategy of sustainable development. They help reduce dependence on energy imports, ensuring a sustainable supply and climate protection. Furthermore, renewable energy sources can help improve the competitiveness of industries over the long run and have a positive impact on regional development and employment. Renewable energies will provide a more diversified, balanced, and stable pool of energy sources.

Energy cannot be created; it can be converted from one form to other by technical, biological and chemical means, such as gas, oil, coal, solar, and wind energy, into heat and power energy, biomass into heat, electricity or biofuels, and so on.

1.1.2. Distributed renewable energy for energy access

According to the 20th-century model of energy distribution, large power plants fueled by coal, hydro, or gas generated electricity that was distributed through a centralized grid. The picture has changed. Advancing technology has diversified the grid, adding new sources of energy generation and two-way power flows. Utility-scale wind and solar farms are supplying an increasing proportion of power. Enter distributed energy resources, known as distributed energy resources (DER): small-scale units of local generation connected to the grid at the distribution level. DERs can include behind-the-meter renewable and nonrenewable generation, energy storage, inverters (electronic devices that change DC to AC), electric vehicles, and other controlled loads (separately metered appliances such as hot water systems). DER is also composed of new technology such as smart meters and data services (ARENA, 2020).

DER penetration is growing every year. Increased demands on the nation's electrical power systems and incidences of electricity shortages, power quality problems, rolling blackouts, and electricity price spikes have caused many utility customers to seek other sources of high-quality, reliable electricity. DERs, small-scale power generation sources located close to where electricity is used (e.g., a home or business), provide an alternative to or enhancement of the traditional electric power grid. A limiting factor is hosting capacity, or the amount of DER that can be connected to a distribution network and operated within its technical limits. DERs can be incorporated into the grid where no threats to safety, reliability, or other operational features exist and no infrastructure upgrades are required. In many cases, however, grid modernization is necessary to integrate DERs safely into the network.

DERs are a faster, less expensive option to the construction of large, central power plants and high-voltage transmission lines. They offer consumers the potential for lower cost, higher service reliability, high-power quality, increased energy efficiency, and energy independence. The use of renewable distributed energy generation technologies and green power such as wind, PV, geothermal, biomass, and hydroelectric power can also provide a significant environmental benefit.

DER deployment is increasing in the developing world despite limited financial support.

Approximately 1.2 billion people (about 16% of the global population) live without electricity, and about 2.7 billion people (38% of the global population) are without clean cooking facilities. The vast majority of people without access to both electricity and clean cooking facilities are in sub-Saharan Africa and the Oceania region; most live in rural areas.

The old paradigm of energy access through grid extension alone is becoming obsolete, as ground-level customer demand is motivating hundreds of millions of households to generate their own energy to feed off-grid units or community-scale minigrids. Mobile technology Pay-as-You-Go (PAYG) business models, the availability of microloans, the viability of microgrids, and falling technology prices continue to support DER deployment worldwide. The most popular business models within the DER sector in 2016 were distributed energy service companies for mini/micro/picogrids, the PAYG model for stand-alone systems, and microfinance and microcredit.

In 2018, global energy demand increased an estimated 2.3%, the greatest rise in a decade. This was the result of strong global economic growth (3.7%) and higher heating and cooling demands in some regions. China, the United States, and India together accounted for almost 70% of the total increase in demand. Because of a rise in fossil fuel consumption, global energy-related CO2 emissions grew an estimated 1.7% during the year. As of 2017, renewable energy accounted for an estimated 18.1% of total final energy consumption (TFEC). Modern renewables supplied 10.6% of TFEC, with an estimated 4.4% growth in demand compared with 2016. Traditional use of biomass for cooking and heating in developing countries accounted for the remaining share. The greatest portion of the modern renewable share was renewable thermal energy (an estimated 4.2% of TFEC), followed by hydropower (3.6%), other renewable power sources including wind power and solar PV (2%), and transport biofuels (about 1%) (Figures 1.1.1 and 1.1.2).

The best route to go is renewable energy: solar energy, wind power, hydro power, bioenergy, hydrogen and fuel cells, geothermal power, and other forms of energy such as that from tides, the oceans, and hot hydrogen fusion. Before the development of coal in the mid-19th century, nearly all energy used was renewable. As far back as 400,000  years ago, humans used biomass to light fires; we sailed the seas with the power of wind and we used waterpower to crush grains. However, there is a certain disadvantage to renewable energy sources: storage capacity.

Figure 1.1.1  Estimated renewable energy share of total energy consumption for 2017. 

Courtesy of REN21 (2019).

Figure 1.1.2  Renewable energy today in a global context. PV , photovoltaics. 

From REN 21 GSR (2019).

Other countries such as Denmark, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Sweden are also on the way to 100%. Although the path is sometimes rocky, you still have to walk it if you want success in the long run.

However, the expansion of power plants for green energy alone is not enough. Time after time, grid operators must compensate for imbalances in electricity consumption and switch on conventional power plants to cope with consumption peaks and prevent total blackouts. The problems are that the sun usually does not shine exactly when the most electricity is needed, or that there is no wind when the whole country is watching football on TV. Gas power plants, for example, must supply electricity as needed, which drives up costs. The biggest problem is how to store energy that is produced in a green and sustainable way. Of course, storing energy in batteries is obvious. Solar systems on the roof of a family home can feed a battery in the basement, which can be used when needed. Depending on the size of the solar panels and battery, as well as the average hours of sunshine at a given location, the energy consumption of a typical household could even be covered completely off-grid.

So, which kind of batteries are we talking about? There are different types of batteries: lead, lithium-ion, which are used in smartphones and e-cars, and redox-flow, which are used primarily for stationary applications such as wind power plants. However, there is a problem with batteries: prices will rise with demand. Because batteries depend on rare raw materials, they are also a precious goods and unsuitable for mass production in a way that would be needed to power an entire society.

Nevertheless, some providers have set themselves the goal of supplying the market with such batteries and creating a decentralized power grid. Pioneers in this field are companies such as Tesla.

References

1. Australian Renewable Energy Agency (ARENA). 2020.

2. Estimated Renewable Energy Share of Total Energy Consumption for 2017, REN21. 2019.

3. Renewable Energy Today in Global Context. 2019 REN 21, GSR.

Chapter 1.2

Using distributed energy resources to meet the trilemma challenges

Abstract

Distributed generation is also called on-site, dispersed, embedded, or decentralized generation. Decentralized energy, or distributed energy, generates electricity, heat, and fuel from many small energy sources. In the future, when planning a new power and heating or transportation fuel system on a clean sheet of paper, there will be no big fossil fuel–based power stations or large high-voltage transmission lines. This book illustrates the future of the off-grid power supply, because there is no advantage to having international and/or interregional grid structures.

Keywords: Community power, Distributed generation, Off-grid systems

1.2.1. Energy trilemma index

The world is undergoing an unprecedented energy transition from a system based on carbon-intensive fossil fuels to a one based on low-carbon, renewable energy, driven by the twin imperatives of mitigating climate change and generating economic prosperity. The speed of change and the effectiveness of individual governments to develop and implement policies to deliver energy sustainability vary across countries and geographies. The World Energy Council recognizes the value of adopting a whole energy systems approach in providing the benefits of sustainable energy to all. This energy transition is a connected policy challenge. Success involves managing the three core dimensions: energy security, energy equity, and the environmental sustainability of energy systems throughout the transition process (Worldenergy, 2019).

The Energy Trilemma Index, developed in partnership with Oliver Wyman, provides an objective rating of national energy system performance across these three Trilemma dimensions. The Trilemma was created to support an informed dialogue about improving energy policy to achieve energy sustainability, by providing decision-makers with information about countries' relative performance. Objectively comparing the success of energy systems around the globe is challenging, but a high-level ranking of performance against a set of benchmark indicators helps to start a conversation about policy coherence and effectiveness. Deeper analysis at the regional and national levels can give policy-makers real insights into trajectories and outlooks, informing future priorities. To provide greater insight, we have evolved the methodology for the 2019 Trilemma and, for the first time, introduced visualization of historical trends to enable the Trilemma performance of individual countries to be tracked back two  decades to 2000. The new time-series analysis provides insights into a country's historical trends, challenges, and opportunities for improvements in meeting energy goals now and in the future. The Index demonstrates the impact of the varying policy pathways that countries have taken in each of the dimensions over the past 20  years. Looking at these trends can inform a dialogue on national energy policy to promote coherence and integration to enable better calibrated energy systems in the context of the global energy transition challenge.

1.2.2. Dimensions

The World Energy Trilemma Index has been prepared annually since 2010. It presents a comparative ranking of 128 countries' energy systems. It provides an assessment of a country's energy system performance, reflecting balance and robustness in the three Trilemma dimensions. It reflects a nation's capacity to meet current and future energy demand reliably, and withstand and bounce back swiftly from system shocks; and it assesses a country's ability to provide universal access to affordable, fairly priced, and abundant energy for domestic and commercial use (Figures 1.2.1 and 1.2.2).

Figure 1.2.1  The Trilemma dimensions.

Figure 1.2.2  World Energy Trilemma top 10 performers.

1.2.3. Monitoring the sustainability of national energy systems

The world is undergoing an unprecedented energy transition from a system based on carbon-intensive fossil fuels to a one based on low-carbon, renewable energy, driven by the twin imperatives of mitigating climate change and generating economic prosperity. The speed of change and the effectiveness of individual governments to develop and implement policies to deliver energy sustainability vary across countries and geographies. The World Energy Council recognizes the value of adopting a whole energy systems approach in providing the benefits of sustainable energy to all. This energy transition is a connected policy challenge. Success involves managing the three core dimensions: energy security, energy equity, and the environmental sustainability of energy systems throughout the transition process.

The Council's World Energy Trilemma Index, developed in partnership with Oliver Wyman, provides an objective rating of national energy system performance across these three Trilemma dimensions. We have created the Trilemma to support an informed dialogue about improving energy policy to achieve energy sustainability, by providing decision-makers with information on countries' relative performance. Objectively comparing the success of energy systems around the globe is challenging, but a high-level ranking of performance against a set of benchmark indicators helps start a conversation about policy coherence and effectiveness. Deeper analysis at regional and national levels can give policy-makers real insights into trajectories and outlooks, informing