FTCE Social Science 6-12 (037) Book + Online

By Cynthia Metcalf

FTCE Social Science Grades 6-12 Test Prep with Online Practice Tests

3rd Edition - Completely Aligned with the Current Exam

REA's FTCE Social Science Grades 6-12 test prep is designed to help teacher candidates pass the FTCE Social Science exam and get certified to teach. Our test prep is perfect for teacher education students and career-changing professionals who are seeking certification as social science teachers in Florida.

Written by a Florida education expert and fully aligned with the latest test specifications, our book contains a targeted review of all the competencies and skills tested on the exam: geography, economics, political science, world history, U.S. history, and social science and its methodology.

An online diagnostic test based on actual FTCE exam questions pinpoints strengths and weaknesses and helps you identify areas in need of further study.

Two full-length practice tests (in the book and online) are balanced to include every type of question on the test. Our online tests are offered in a timed format with automatic scoring and diagnostic feedback to help you zero in on the topics and types of questions that give you trouble now, so you can succeed on test day.

This test prep is a must-have for anyone who wants to become a social science teacher in Florida!

REA books and software have proven to be the extra support teacher candidates need to pass their challenging tests for licensure. Our comprehensive test preps are teacher-recommended and written by experts in the field.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Research & Education Association
• Release date: Jun 13, 2017
• ISBN: 9780738688268

Book preview

Research & Education Association

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Piscataway, New Jersey 08854

Email: [e-mail]

Florida FTCE Social Science 6–12 Test with Online Practice Tests, 3rd Edition

Copyright © 2017 by Research & Education Association, Inc.

Prior editions copyright © 2011, 2009 by Research & Education Association, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Control Number 2017932505

ISBN-13: 978-0-7386-1215-7

ISBN-10: 0-7386-1215-4

The competencies presented in this book were created and implemented by the Florida Department of Education. All trademarks cited in this publication are the property of their respective owners.

LIMIT OF LIABILITY/DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTY: Publication of this work is for the purpose of test preparation and related use and subjects as set forth herein. While every effort has been made to achieve a work of high quality, neither Research & Education Association, Inc., nor the authors and other contributors of this work guarantee the accuracy or completeness of or assume any liability in connection with the information and opinions contained herein. REA and the authors and other contributors shall in no event be liable for any personal injury, property or other damages of any nature whatsoever, whether special, indirect, consequential or compensatory, directly or indirectly resulting from the publication, use or reliance upon this work.

Cover image: iStockphoto.com/Wavebreakmedia

FTCE

SOCIAL SCIENCE 6 -12

Access your Online Tools

by following the instructions

found at the back of this book.

Contents

About Our Author

About Our Editor

About REA

Acknowledgments

Introduction

How to Use This Book + Online Prep

An Overview of the Test

Studying for the Test

Test-Taking Tips to Boost Your Score

Diagnostic Test available online at www.rea.com/studycenter

Chapter 1. Geography

1.1. Apply the six essential elements of geography

1.2. Identify the ways natural processes and human–environment interactions shape the Earth’s physical systems and features

1.3. Identify the ways natural processes and human–environment interactions shape cultural features

1.4. Analyze geographic information from maps, charts, and graphs

Chapter 2. Economics

2.1. Analyze how scarcity and opportunity cost influence choices about how to allocate resources

2.2. Identify how economic systems answer the three basic economic questions

2.3. Analyze the interaction of supply and demand in determining production, distribution, and consumption

2.4. Analyze how macroeconomic factors influence the performance of economic systems

2.5. Evaluate the roles of government, central banking systems, and specialized institutions in market and command economies

2.6. Analyze the features of global economics in terms of their impact on national and international economic systems

2.7. Evaluate the functions of budgeting, saving, and credit in a consumer economy

Chapter 3. Political Science

3.1. Identify the features and principles of the U.S. Constitution

3.2. Identify the functions of U.S. political institutions

3.3. Identify the effects of voter behavior, political parties, interest groups, public opinion, and mass media on the electoral process in the United States

3.4. Identify the elements and functions of state and local governments in the United States

3.5. Analyze the guiding concepts, principles, and effects of U.S. foreign policy

3.6. Compare various political systems in terms of elements, structures, and functions

3.7. Analyze the key elements of U.S. citizenship

Chapter 4. World History

4.1. Identify characteristics of prehistoric cultures and early civilizations

4.2. Evaluate the influence of ancient civilizations on the evolution of modern civilization

4.3. Identify the major contributions of African, Asian, and Mesoamerican societies before 1500 CE

4.4. Identify the major contributions of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Reformation period to Western civilization

4.5. Identify the social, cultural, political, and economic characteristics of African, Asian, and eastern European societies from 1500 to 1900

4.6. Evaluate the significant scientific, intellectual, and philosophical contributions of the Age of Reason through the Age of Enlightenment

4.7. Identify the causes, effects, events, and significant individuals associated with the Age of Exploration

4.8. Assess the social, political, and economic effects of the Industrial Revolution

4.9. Identify the causes, effects, events, and significant individuals associated with the Age of Revolution

4.10. Evaluate the impact of imperialism and nationalism on global social, political, geographic, and economic development

4.11. Analyze the causes and effects of political transformations and military conflicts in the 20th century

4.12. Analyze major contemporary global political, social, economic, and geographic issues and trends

4.13. Identify major world religions and ideologies

Chapter 5. U.S. History

5.1. Evaluate the impact of the Age of Exploration on the Americas

5.2. Analyze the social, cultural, political, and economic development of the Americas during the colonial period

5.3. Identify the causes, significant individuals, and effects of the events associated with the Revolutionary era

5.4. Identify the causes, significant individuals, and effects of the events associated with the Constitutional era and the early republic

5.5. Evaluate the impact of westward expansion on the social, cultural, political, and economic development of the emerging nation

5.6. Identify the social, cultural, political, and economic characteristics of the antebellum period

5.7. Identify the causes, significant individuals, and effects of the events associated with the American Civil War and Reconstruction eras

5.8. Evaluate the impact of agrarianism, industrialization, urbanization, and reform movements on social, cultural, political, and economic development in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

5.9. Evaluate the impact of immigration on social, cultural, political, and economic development in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

5.10. Identify the causes, significant individuals, and effects of the events associated with the World War I era

5.11. Identify social, cultural, political, and economic developments between World War I and World War II

5.12. Identify the causes, significant individuals, and effects of the events associated with the World War II era

5.13. Identify the causes, significant individuals, and effects of the events associated with domestic and foreign affairs during the Cold War era

5.14. Identify the causes, significant individuals, and effects of the events associated with movements for equality, civil rights, and civil liberties in the 19th and 20th centuries

5.15. Identify the causes, significant individuals, and effects of the events associated with contemporary domestic and foreign affairs

5.16. Identify key individuals, events, and issues related to Florida history

Chapter 6. Social Science and Its Methodology

6.1. Identify social science disciplines

6.2. Identify social science concepts

6.3. Analyze the interrelationships between social science disciplines

6.4. Interpret tabular and graphic representations of information related to the social sciences

6.5. Identify appropriate strategies, methods, tools, and technologies for the teaching of social science

6.6. Evaluate examples of primary and secondary sources

FTCE: Social Science 6–12 Practice Tests

Also available online at www.rea.com/studycenter

Practice Test 1

Answer Sheet

Practice Test 1

Answer Key

Self-Assessment Guide

Detailed Explanations

Practice Test 2

Answer Sheet

Practice Test 2

Answer Key

Self-Assessment Guide

Detailed Explanations

Index

About Our Author

Dr. Cynthia Metcalf earned her Ph.D. in history from the University of Virginia. She received several major fellowships to conduct her research from the Social Science Research Council, American Research Center in Egypt, American Institute of Maghrebi Studies, and the United States Information Agency Documentation of Cultural Properties Program.

Dr. Metcalf is a Visiting Assistant Professor in the History Department at Manhattanville College in Purchase, N.Y., where she teaches both graduate and undergraduate courses in Middle Eastern history, South Asian history, and World History. She also serves as a senior thesis advisor for history majors and as a freshman advisor and freshman seminar instructor for incoming students. Dr. Metcalf also teaches online as an Adjunct Instructor in History for Baker College Online. Currently, Dr. Metcalf is revising her dissertation manuscript and contributing entries to the Dictionary of African Bibliography.

About Our Editor

Rhonda Atkinson, Ph.D., has an extensive background in reading and psychology, and a deep understanding of how people learn. She has applied this knowledge to a variety of content areas and learner needs, and is an expert in instructional design.

After earning her doctorate in curriculum and instruction from Louisiana State University, Dr. Atkinson went on to become a faculty member and administrator in post-secondary education programs in Louisiana, Missouri, and Florida. Along the way, she has created courses and workshops to meet different content and learner needs in online, face-to-face, and hybrid formats.

She has also developed educational materials for Northrop Grumman, the Institute for Health-care Advancement, Novartis, the Public Broadcasting System, the Louisiana Office of Elder Affairs, the Louisiana Office of Nutrition Education, and the Louisiana Department of Education.

Dr. Atkinson is the co-author of seven college textbooks—many of them in multiple editions—in reading and learning strategies. She is currently a Professor of Education at Valencia College, Orlando, Florida, where she teaches undergraduate education courses in student success and technology as well as post-graduate certification courses in education.

About REA

Founded in 1959, Research & Education Association (REA) is dedicated to publishing the finest and most effective educational materials—including study guides and test preps—for students of all ages.

Today, REA’s wide-ranging catalog is a leading research for students, teachers, and other professionals. Visit www.rea.com to see a complete listing of all our titles.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Pam Weston, Publisher, for setting the quality standards for production integrity and managing the publication to completion; John Cording, Vice President, Technology, for coordinating the design and development of the REA Study Center; Larry B. Kling, Vice President, Editorial, for his overall direction; Diane Goldschmidt, Managing Editor, for coordinating development of this edition; and Jennifer Calhoun, Graphic Designer, for page design and file preparation.

In addition, we would like to thank Transcend Creative Services for typesetting this edition; Karen Lamoreux for copyediting; and Ellen Gong for proofreading.

INTRODUCTION

Passing the FTCE Social Science 6–12 Test

Congratulations! By taking the Florida Teacher Certification Examinations (FTCE) Social Science 6–12 test, you’re on your way to a rewarding teaching career. Our book, and the online tools that come with it, focus on what you need to succeed on this important exam, bringing you one step closer to being certified to teach social studies in grades 6–12 in Florida.

This FTCE Social Science 6–12 Book + Online test prep package includes:

• Complete overview of the FTCE Social Science 6–12 test

• Focused content review for all six subjects tested on the FTCE Social Science 6–12 test

• An online diagnostic test to pinpoint your strengths and weaknesses and focus your study

• Two full-length practice tests (both in the book and online) that come with powerful diagnostic tools to help you personalize your prep

There are many different ways to prepare for your FTCE Social Science test. What’s best for you depends on how much time you have to study and how comfortable you are with the subject matter. Our book and online tests give you the tools you need to customize your prep so you can make the most of your study time.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK + ONLINE PREP

About Our Review

The review chapters are designed to help you sharpen your command of all the skills you’ll need to pass the FTCE Social Science test. The test assesses six competencies. Each of the skills required is discussed at length in this book to optimize your understanding of what the test covers.

Keep in mind that your schooling has taught you most of what you need to know to answer the questions on the test. Our review will reinforce what you have learned and show you how to relate that information to the specific competencies on the test. Studying your class notes and textbooks together with our review will give you an excellent foundation for passing the test.

About the REA Study Center

We know your time is valuable and you want an efficient study experience. At the online REA Study Center (www.rea.com/studycenter), you will get feedback right from the start on what you know and what you don’t to help make the most of your study time.

Here is what you will find at the REA Study Center:

• Diagnostic Test— Before you review with the book, take our online diagnostic test. Your score report will pinpoint topics for which you need the most review to help focus your study.

• 2 Full-Length Practice Tests— These practice tests give you the most complete picture of your strengths and weaknesses. After you’ve studied with the book, test what you’ve learned by taking the first of two online practice exams. Review your score reports, then go back and study any topics you missed. Take the second practice test to ensure you’ve mastered the material.

Our online exams simulate the computer-based format of the actual FTCE test and come with these features:

• Automatic Scoring— Find out how you did on your test, instantly.

• Diagnostic Score Reports— Get a specific score tied to each competency, so you can focus on the areas where you need the most help.

• Detailed Answer Explanations— Learn not just why a response option is correct, but also why the other answer choices are incorrect.

• Timed testing— Manage your time as you practice, so you’ll feel confident on test day.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE TEST

Who Takes the FTCE Social Science 6–12 Test and What Is it Used for?

The FTCE Social Science 6–12 test is a criterion-referenced examination constructed to measure the knowledge and skills that an entry-level social science educator must have to teach in public schools in Florida. The test is a requirement for candidates seeking to teach grades 6–12 social science, and is used to determine if teacher candidates have the necessary knowledge to effectively teach the subject matter.

What is the Format of the FTCE Social Science Test?

The test has approximately 120 multiple-choice questions and you will have 2.5 hours to complete it. Each question has four answer choices. You will select the best option by choosing A, B, C, or D.

The FTCE Social Science test is a computer-administered test and is available throughout the year at numerous locations across the state and at select locations nationally. To find a test center near you, visit www.fldoe.org.

What is Assessed on the FTCE Social Science 6–12 Test?

Below are the competencies used as the basis for the FTCE Social Science 6–12 examination, as well as the approximate percentage of the total test that each competency accounts for. These competencies represent the knowledge that teams of teachers, subject area specialists, and district-level educators have determined to be important for beginning teachers.

When Should the FTCE Test Be Taken?

Florida law requires that teacher candidates demonstrate mastery of basic skills, professional knowledge, and the content area in which they choose to specialize. If you’ve graduated from a Florida state-approved teacher preparation program and made the decision to teach Social Science 6–12, you need to begin the process by applying for a Florida Temporary Certificate in that subject. The Bureau of Educator Certification will evaluate your eligibility only in the subject(s) you request on your application form. The Temporary Certificate is valid for three school years, which allows you time to complete the certification tests while teaching full-time.

For high school graduates and out-of-state educators, the Bureau of Educator Certification will provide you with official information about which test(s) to take to complete requirements for the professional certificate. The FTCE Social Science exam is administered by appointment, year round in several locations throughout Florida. Special accommodations also can be made for applicants who are visually impaired, hearing impaired, physically disabled, or specific learning disabled.

To receive information on upcoming administrations of the FTCE, you should consult the FTCE Registration Bulletin, which can be obtained by contacting:

Florida Department of Education

325 West Gaines Street, Suite 414

Tallahassee, FL 32399-0400

Phone: [phone]

Website: www.fldoe.org or www.fl.nesinc.com

Bureau of Educator Certification: www.fldoe.org/edcert

The FTCE Registration Bulletin also includes information regarding test retakes and score reports. You must pay a registration fee to take the FTCE Social Science test. Utilize the contact information above for any questions.

What’s the Passing Score?

A scaled score of at least 200 is required to pass the exam. The Florida Department of Education estimates that in order to pass, test takers will need to get 74% of the questions correct. Thus, to achieve a minimum passing score you’ll need to get approximately 89 questions correct. For more information on scale scoring, see the Scores tab at www.fl.nesinc.com.

When Will I Receive My Score Report?

Because the FTCE Social Science 6–12 test has only multiple-choice questions, you will receive an unofficial pass/non-pass status at your test site immediately after your exam. Official reports will be released within 4 weeks of the test date.

Can I Retake the Test?

A score on the FTCE that does not match your expectations does not mean that you should change your plans about teaching. If you do not achieve a passing grade on the FTCE, don’t panic. The test can be taken again after 31 calendar days, so you can seriously work on improving your score in preparation for your next FTCE. To retake the Social Science test, you must reregister and pay a retake fee.

What Else Do I Need to Know About Test Day?

The day before your test, check for any updates in your testing account. This is where you’ll learn of any changes to your reporting schedule or if there’s a change in the test site.

On the day of the test, be sure to make time for a good breakfast and dress in layers that can be removed or added as the conditions in the test center require.

Your admission ticket lists your appointment time, but you should arrive at the test center 30 minutes beforehand. Administrative preparations must take place before the actual test begins. As an added incentive to make sure that you arrive early, keep in mind that no one will be admitted into the test center after the test has begun.

Before you leave for the testing site, carefully review your registration materials. Make sure you bring your admission ticket and two unexpired forms of identification. Primary forms of identification must be government-issued and include a photo and your signature. Such forms of ID include:

• Passport

• Government-issued driver’s license

• State-issued ID card

• Military ID card

You may need to produce a supplemental identification document if any questions arise with your primary ID or if your primary ID is otherwise valid but lacks your full name, photo, and signature. Secondary forms of identification must have a photo or a signature; examples include a Social Security card, work ID, or student ID. Remember, without proper identification you will not be admitted to the test center.

Strict rules limit what you can bring into the test center. We recommend that you consult the Test Site Rules found at www.fl.nesinc.com/policies for a complete rundown. You may not bring watches of any kind, cellphones, smartphones, any other electronic communication devices or weapons of any kind. Scrap paper, written notes, books, and any printed material is prohibited. In addition, no smoking, eating, or drinking is allowed in the testing room. Personal items must be placed in the secure storage area provided at the testing center.

Consider bringing a small snack and a bottle of water to partake of beforehand to keep you sharp during the test.

STUDYING FOR THE TEST

It is never too early to start studying for the Florida Social Science 6–12 test. The earlier you begin, the more time you will have to sharpen your skills. Do not procrastinate. Cramming is not an effective way to study, since it does not allow you the time needed to learn the test material.

When you take REA’s practice tests, simulate the conditions of the actual test as closely as possible. Turn your television and radio off. Mute your social media alerts, and go to a quiet place free from distraction. Read each question carefully, consider all answer choices, and pace yourself.

As you complete each test, review your score reports, study the diagnostic feedback, and review the explanations to the questions you answered incorrectly. But don’t overdo it. Take one problem area at a time; review it until you are confident that you understand the material. Give extra attention to the areas giving you the most difficulty, as this will help raise your score. After further review, you may want to retake the practice tests online.

Keep track of your scores. By doing so, you will be able to gauge your progress and discover your strengths and weaknesses. Take notes or create flashcards for the material you will want to go over again. Using notecards gives you essential information at a glance, keeps you organized, and helps you build your confidence.

STUDY SCHEDULE

TEST-TAKING TIPS TO BOOST YOUR SCORE

Even though you have probably taken standardized tests like the FTCE Social Science test before, you may still be anxious about the exam. This is perfectly normal, and there are several ways to help alleviate test-day nervousness. Here are some tips to help you raise your score and build your comfort level with the test.

1. Guess Away!

One of the most frequently asked questions about the FTCE Social Science test is: Can I guess? The answer: absolutely! There is no penalty for guessing on the test. That means if you refrain from guessing, you may lose points. To guess smartly, use the process of elimination (see Strategy No. 2). Your score is based strictly on the number of correct answers. So answer all questions and take your best guess when you don’t know the answer.

2. Process of Elimination

Process of elimination is one of the most important test-taking strategies at your disposal. Process of elimination means looking at the choices and eliminating the ones you know are wrong, including answers that are partially wrong. Your odds of getting the right answer increase from the moment you’re able to get rid of a wrong choice.

3. All in

Review all the response options. Just because you believe you’ve found the correct answer, look at each choice so you don’t mistakenly jump to any conclusions. If you are asked to choose the best answer, be sure your first answer is really the best one.

4. Choice of the Day

What if you are truly stumped and can’t use the process of elimination? It’s time to pick a fallback answer. On the day of the test, choose the position of the answer (e.g., the third of the four choices) that you will pick for any question you cannot smartly guess. According to the laws of probability, you have a higher chance of getting an answer right if you stick to one chosen position for the answer choice when you have to guess an answer instead of randomly picking one.

5. Use Choices to Confirm Your Answer

The great thing about multiple-choice questions is that the answer has to be staring back at you. Have an answer in mind and use the choices to confirm it.

6. Watch the Clock

Among the most vital point-saving skills is active time management. Keep an eye on the timer on your computer screen. Make sure you stay on top of how much time you have left and never spend too much time on any one question. Remember: Most multiple-choice questions are worth one raw point. Treat each one as if it’s the one that will put you over the top. You never know, it just might.

7. Read, Read, Read

It’s important to read through all the multiple-choice options. Even if you believe answer choice A is correct, you can misread a question or response option if you’re rushing to get through the test. While it is important not to linger on a question, it is also crucial to avoid giving a question short shrift. Slow down, calm down, read all the choices. Verify that your choice is the best one, and click on it.

8. Take Notes

The test center will provide you with a pen and erasable notepad. Make sure you get this notepad and use it just like scratch paper to make notes as you work your way toward the answer(s).

9. Isolate Limiters

Pay attention to any limiters in a multiple-choice question stem. These are words such as initial, best, most (as in most appropriate or most likely), not, least, except, required, or necessary. Especially watch for negative words, such as "Choose the answer that is not true." When you select your answer, double-check yourself by asking how the response fits the limitations established by the stem. Think of the stem as a puzzle piece that perfectly fits only the response option(s) that contain the correct answer. Let it guide you.

10. It’s Not a Race

Ignore other test-takers. Don’t compare yourself to anyone else in the room. Focus on the items in front of you and the time you have left. If someone finishes the test 30 minutes early, it does not necessarily mean that person answered more questions correctly than you did. Stay calm and focus on your test. It’s the only one that matters.

11. Confirm Your Click

In the digital age, many of us are used to rapid-clicking, be it in the course of emailing or gaming. Look at the screen to be sure to see that your mouse-click is acknowledged. If your answer doesn’t register, you won’t get credit. However, if you want to mark it for review so you can return later, that’s your call. Before you click Submit, use the test’s review screen to see whether you inadvertently skipped any questions.

12. Creature of Habit? No Worries.

We are all creatures of habit. It’s therefore best to follow a familiar pattern of study. Do what’s comfortable for you. Set a time and place each day to study for this test. Whether it is 30 minutes at the library or an hour in a secluded corner of your local coffee shop, commit yourself as best you can to this schedule every day. Find quiet places where it is less crowded, as constant background noise can distract you. Don’t study one subject for too long. Take an occasional breather and treat yourself to a healthy snack or some exercise. After your short break—5 or 10 minutes can do the trick—return to what you were studying or start a new section.

13. Knowledge is Power

Purchasing this book gives you an edge on passing the FTCE Social Science 6–12 test. Make the most of this edge. Review the sections on how the test is structured, what types of questions will be asked, and so on. Take our practice tests to familiarize yourself with what the test looks and feels like.

Most test anxiety occurs because people feel unprepared when they are taking the test, and they psych themselves out. You can whittle away at anxiety by learning the format of the test and by knowing what to expect. Fully simulating the test even once will boost your chances of getting the score you need.

Meanwhile, the knowledge you’ve gained will also save you the valuable time that would have been eaten up puzzling through what the directions are asking. As an added benefit, previewing the test will free up your brain’s resources so you can focus on racking up as many points as you can.

14. B-r-e-a-t-h-e

What’s the worst that can happen when you take a test? You may have an off day, and despite your best efforts, you may not pass. Well, the good news is that a test can be retaken. In fact, you may already be doing this—this book is every bit for you as it is for first-timers. Fortunately, the FTCE Social Science 6–12 test is something you can study and prepare for, and in some ways to a greater extent than other tests you may have taken.

Good luck on the Florida Social Science 6–12 test!

CHAPTER

1

Geography

Geography is the study of the Earth’s surface, including such aspects as its climate, topography, vegetation, and population.

Geography is much more than just memorizing names and places and studying the physical features of the Earth. While geography requires an understanding of the Earth’s surface, it also is concerned with the distribution of living things and Earth’s features around the Earth. Geography focuses on three questions: Where? Why there? What are the consequences of it being there? Geographers look at the Earth’s physical space and investigate patterns. For example, a geographer might look at the space of your bedroom and ask several questions: How are things distributed? Why are they where they are? What processes operate in that space? How does this space relate to other nearby spaces? Geographers call this way of identifying, explaining, and predicting human and physical patterns in space and the interconnectedness of various spaces the spatial perspective. Geography views the Earth through a lens of location and space and seeks to find patterns of place or interactions between places and people. Thus, geography is the science of space and place.

Branches of Geography

Generally, geography can be divided into four main branches:

Human Geography focuses on humans and the cultures they create relative to their space. It encompasses population geography, economics, and political geography and looks at how people’s activities relate to the environment politically, culturally, historically, and socially.

Physical Geography addresses Earth’s physical environment: water (hydrosphere), air (atmosphere), plants and animals (biosphere), and land (lithosphere). Physical geographers study land formation, water, weather, and climate (weather patterns, specifically precipitation and temperature, over time), as well as more specific topics such as geomorphology, biogeography, and environmental geography.

Regional Geography organizes areas of Earth that have some degree of similarity and divides the world into different realms.

Topical/Systemic Geography is the orderly and methodical study of climate, landforms, economics, and culture.

The main focus of geographers, no matter the subfield, is the spatial perspective. For example, population geography deals with the relationships between geography and population patterns, including birth and death rates. Political geography concerns the effect of geography on politics, especially on national boundaries and relations between states. Economic geography focuses on the interaction between Earth’s landscape and the economic activity of the human population.

COMPETENCY 1.1

Apply the six essential elements of geography.

Geographic Education: 18 Standards, 6 Elements

The National Geography Standards (http://nationalgeographic.org/standards/national-geography-standards/) were published in 1994 to guide the teaching and learning of geography in the United States. The 18 standards are organized under six essential elements. These elements indicate what a geographically informed person should know and understand in terms of factual knowledge of geographic concepts and information, mental maps and tools, and thinking in geographic terms.

Element 1: The World in Spatial Terms

Geography connects the relationships between people, places, and environments by structuring the knowledge of them into real and mental maps and then conducting a spatial analysis of that information. So, maps become a primary tool that geographers use in order to present, acquire, process, and decipher information in spatial terms. Standards that address this element are:

1. how to use maps and other geographic representations, tools, and technologies to acquire, process, and report information;

2. how to use mental maps (a person’s internalized picture of a part of Earth’s surface) to organize information about people, places, and environments;

3. how to analyze the spatial organization of people, places, and environments on Earth’s surface.

One of the first things geographers do is identify a location in spatial terms: absolute and relative location.

Absolute location is the physical whereabouts of a place as shown on a map or geographic representation. Every point on Earth has a specific location that is determined by an imaginary grid of lines denoting latitude and longitude. Parallels of latitude measure distances north and south of the line called the equator. Meridians of longitude measure distances east and west of another imaginary line called the prime meridian. Geographers use latitude and longitude to pinpoint a place’s absolute, or exact, location. Addresses (e.g., 200 Main Street, Orlando, Florida) also denote absolute locations.

Relative location is the type of location most commonly used: a description of a place in terms of other places. Relative locations reflect a person’s mental map (internalized picture of a part of Earth’s surface) to organize information about people, places, and environments. Relative location is usually described by landmarks, time, direction, or distances from one thing to another. So while the absolute address might be described as 200 Main Street, Orlando, Florida, the relative location might be the three story-building on Main Street across from the public parking lot and next to Joe’s Pizzeria. While the absolute location (200 Main Street) may remain the same, the relative location could change if Joe’s Pizzeria becomes a grocery store or if the public parking lot becomes a dog park.

Element 2: Places and Regions

The basic units of geography are place and region. Geographers use these units to explore the physical and human characteristics of areas to understand how the areas work. Places and regions also involve people’s perceptions of areas, the mental regions that people create from their own view of the world, and people’s methods of organizing these perceptions or biases. Standards within the element of places and regions are:

1. the physical and human characteristics of places;

2. that people create regions to interpret Earth’s complexity;

3. how culture and experience influence people’s perceptions of places and regions.

Place addresses the question: What’s it like there? Place is a unique combination of physical and cultural attributes that give each location on the Earth its individual stamp and help us understand its nature. A place’s physical characteristics comprise its natural environment and emanate from geological, hydrological, atmospheric, and biological processes present in that location. Physical characteristics of a place include mountains, rivers, beaches, topography, flora (plant life), fauna (animal life), resources (trees, oil, petroleum, and diamonds), landforms (rivers, plateaus, plains), bodies of water, climate, soils, and natural vegetation. The human characteristics of a place are derived from the changes to an environment as a result of human ideas and actions. Such characteristics include architecture, religion, food, and transportation and communication networks. Looking at the physical and human characteristics of a place helps answer two major questions that geographers ask: Where is it? and Why is it there?

Geographers divide the world into more manageable units called regions. Regions have unifying characteristics that may be physical, cultural, or human-based. They may occur over large spaces and can be found across great distances. Physical characteristics of a region include landforms such as a mountain range, climate, soil, and natural vegetation. Regions may also be distinguished by human characteristics, including language, economic, social, political, and cultural similarities.

There are three basic types of regions:

• Formal regions (sometimes referred to as uniform regions) are areas that have common (or uniform) cultural or physical features. They are often defined by governmental or administrative boundaries (i.e., United States, Jacksonville, Brazil). However, formal regions can show other characteristics. For example, a climate region is a formal region because it links places that share a climate. The places on a map that shows where a specific language is spoken make up a formal region because they share the feature of a common language.

• Functional regions (sometimes referred to as nodal regions ) are linked together by some function’s influence on them. However, if the function ceases to exist, the region no longer exists. Functional regions are created through the movement of some phenomenon, like a disease; or a perceived interaction among places, like pizza delivery routes. For example, a functional region might appear on a map of Delta Airlines’ flights from Atlanta, Georgia. A mapmaker would plot all the places to which Delta travels from its hub in Atlanta, the node. Then the mapmaker would draw a boundary enclosing all of those places into one functional region. The area affected by the spread of a flu epidemic is another example of a functional region. Functional regions are defined by the places affected by the movement of some phenomenon from its source, or from the node of other places.

• Vernacular regions are those loosely defined by people’s perception (e.g., the South, the Middle East). The boundaries of a perceptual region are determined by people’s beliefs, not a scientifically measurable process. For example, the space in which the cool kids sit at lunch would be a perceptual region because its boundaries are totally determined by the region maker’s perception of who is cool and who is not—something that could be debated by any other person in the room. Another example of a perceptual region is the American South. People differ in their perceptions of which places are considered part of the South.

Element 3: Physical Systems

Physical processes shape Earth’s surface and interact with plant and animal life to create, sustain, and modify ecosystems. This element of geography looks at environmental phenomena and their interaction through ecosystems, renewable resources, and the water cycle. Standards involving physical systems include:

1. the physical processes that shape the patterns of Earth’s surface;

2. the characteristics and distribution of ecosystems on Earth’s surface.

A place’s physical characteristics comprise its natural environment and emanate from geological, hydrological, atmospheric, and biological processes present in that location. Some physical characteristics of a place include mountains, rivers, beaches, topography, flora (plant life), fauna (animal life), resources (trees, oil, petroleum, diamonds), landforms (rivers, plateaus, plains), bodies of water, climate, soils, and natural vegetation.

Element 4: Human Systems

People are central to geography in that human activities help shape Earth’s surface. Human settlements and structures are part of Earth’s surface, and humans compete for control of Earth’s surface. This element looks at characteristics, distribution, and migration of human populations. It also tries to find patterns—in culture, economic interdependence, human settlement, conflict and cooperation—and how these patterns influence people’s relationships with each other and the Earth. This element consists of the following standards:

1. the characteristics, distribution, and migration of human populations;

2. the characteristics, distribution, and complexity of Earth’s cultural mosaics;

3. the patterns and networks of economic interdependence;

4. the processes, patterns, and functions of human settlement;

5. how forces of cooperation and conflict among people influence the division and control of Earth’s surface.

Movement is a key factor in human systems. Movement involves transportation (imports and exports), flow of people (immigration and migration), and spread of ideas and information (communications, Internet usage). For example, cultural diffusion is an aspect of movement that focuses on how ideas, innovation, and ideology spread from one area to another. Spatial interaction describes how places interact through movement. Although everything is theoretically linked to everything else, nearer things are usually related more to each other than to faraway things. Thus, the extent of spatial interaction often depends on distance.

In evaluating movement and spatial interaction, geographers often evaluate the friction of distance, the degree to which distance interferes with an interaction. For example, the friction of distance for a working-class Ohio man wanting to visit a dentist in Ethiopia is quite high, meaning that the distance gets in the way of this interaction occurring. However, the friction of distance has been reduced in many aspects of life with improved transportation and communication infrastructures. Thus, the friction of distance is not as much of a problem for a business in Florida to sell something to a business in Taiwan. Businesses can now communicate over the Internet, buying and selling their goods in transactions that would have taken months to complete just 30 years ago. This increasing sense of accessibility and connectivity seems to bring humans in distant places closer together, a phenomenon known as space-time compression. Note that space-time compression is reducing perceived distance, which is the friction of distance thought by humans, not the actual distance on the land.

Related to space-time compression is the effect of distance decay, in which the interaction between two places declines as the distance between the two places increases. Imagine putting a magnet on your desk and putting an iron nail on it. The farther you pull the iron nail away from the magnet, the less of a pull effect the magnet has on the nail. It is the same with distance decay; as the distance between two entities increases, the effect of their interaction decreases. However, improved transportation and communication technologies have reduced the effect of distance decay on most human interactions. On any given day in 1850, a person living in Atlanta probably never interacted with someone from 30 miles outside the city. Now a person in Atlanta can interact with people from all over the world via the Internet and improved transportation.

Element 5: Environment and Society

Humans modify the Earth’s environment through their actions. Such actions happen largely as a consequence of the way people value or devalue the Earth’s resources. This element consists of the following standards:

1. how human actions modify the physical environment;

2. how physical systems affect human systems;

3. the changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution, and importance of resources.

Geographers look at both the positive and negative effects that result from human interaction with the environment: how humans rely on the environment, alter it, and adapt to it—and how the environment may limit what people are able to do. Much of the way that people relate to the environment reflects their economic and political circumstances, as well as their culture and their technological capabilities. One significant issue is that the interaction between humans and the environment can change quickly, and such change might be temporary. For instance, building a dam changes the environment, but then floods, earthquakes, drought, or mudslides could destroy the dam and change the environment again.

Element 6: The Uses of Geography

Geography informs people about the relationships they have between place and environment over time. This element explores how humans modify the physical environment, how physical systems affect human systems, and how the changes occur in the meaning, use, distribution, and importance of resources both in the past and potentially in the future. This element addresses the following standards:

1. how to apply geography to interpret the past;

2. how to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future.

COMPETENCY 1.2

Identify the ways natural processes and human–environment interactions shape the Earth’s physical systems and features.

The Earth’s physical systems and features are shaped and reshaped by natural processes and human interactions with it. Physical processes are nature’s way of producing, maintaining, or altering the physical systems of the Earth. Physical processes can be categorized into four areas:

• Air—referred to as atmospheric and includes examinations of climate and meteorology.

• Land—referred to as lithospheric and includes examinations of plate tectonics, erosion, and soil formation.

• Water—referred to as hydrospheric and examines things like the circulation of the oceans and the hydrologic cycle.

• Animals—referred to as biospheric and examines plant and animal communities and ecosystems.

There are seven main categories of natural processes that have shaped Earth’s landforms and physical systems and features:

• weathering

• transportation

• erosion

• freezing and thawing

• gravity

• deposition

• plate tectonics

Much of Earth’s landforms were the byproducts of interactions among these natural processes that produced sediments, which were then deposited together to form sand dunes, deltas, and glacial moraines. Some of the natural processes, like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, produce dramatic alterations of the Earth’s surface. Others, like weathering and erosion, take longer to happen.

Studying the interactions within and between these categories of physical processes and the parts that the natural cycles of water, rocks, and atmospheric gasses play reveals how the Earth functions. Earth’s natural processes shape the land and environment by reworking, conserving, and renewing its materials. For instance, the interaction between the hydrosphere and the atmosphere might produce floods, hurricanes, and cyclones that in turn reshape the Earth where they land. Plants alter the Earth’s atmosphere in multiple ways: first, they remove the carbon dioxide, then they transform the carbon into sugar, and then they release the oxygen.

Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks at or near the Earth’s surface. As rocks fragment, crack, and crumble, due to physical, chemical, or biological interactions, they become soil. As that soil and rock debris loosen and get transported, erosion happens. Without it, rock debris would just stay where it was formed. Erosion can happen for a variety of reasons and through a variety of natural agents, each producing distinctive changes both in the material that it transports and creating distinctive characteristics in the surface and landscape. There are various agents of erosion:

• Streams (running water): Sediments get transported by streams and shape the Earth as a result.

• Glaciers (moving ice): Glacial erosion can cause the formation of glacial moraines (material transported by a glacier and then deposited somewhere else), drumlins (streamlined long hills composed of sediment from glacial drift), and finger lakes (caused by glaciers advancing and retreating and dragging sediment along with them). For example, the Ice Age was an age where a significant amount of glacier formation and erosion happened during its waning and waxing.

• Wave Action : Erosion and deposition by waves cause changes in shoreline features, including beaches, sandbars, and barrier islands. Wave action is the most potent erosive force on Earth as it is powered by the force of gravity, and the world’s rivers alone move about 20 billion tons of rock and sediment to the oceans each year.

• Wind : Wind can aid the erosion of sediments and create dunes and sandblasted bedrock.

• Mass Movement : This can cause Earth materials to move downslope under the influence of gravity.

Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth’s lithosphere is broken down into a dozen plates that float. It focuses on the movement in the Earth and the forces that produce movement. When forces deep in the Earth make pieces of the Earth’s crust separate, collide, and slide past each other, we get a variety of new forms—like mountains, islands, trenches, and valleys. Earthquakes occur along the boundaries between colliding tectonic plates; sometimes the molten rock below creates so much pressure that it gets released by volcanoes and then these help to construct mountains. Under the ocean, volcanic activity along the ocean floor may form undersea mountains that can thrust above the Earth’s surface and become islands.

COMPETENCY 1.3

Identify the ways natural processes and human–environment interactions shape cultural features (e.g., communities, language, technology, political and economic institutions).

Geographers also look at the impact of humans on the physical environment. Culture is the way of life (e.g., language, technology, political and economic institutions, religion, work ethics, values, education, art, music) that characterizes a group of people. The study of culture and Earth interactions is called cultural ecology. Political ecology is a multi-disciplinary study of how social and environmental change occurs in the context of power relations, social structures, economic issues, and human–environment interactions.

Humans depend on the environment to provide them with their basic needs: food, shelter, and clothing. Humans also modify that same environment in order to meet their needs. For instance, people build dams to change the way water flows, plow and irrigate fields to grow food, clear forests to build houses, and dig mines for minerals and natural resources that help sustain life. Humans adapt to their environment if they cannot change it. For instance, people put on warm coats and use heaters when they live in cold climates. How people adapt to their environment depends to a large extent on their ability to do so—and it reflects their economic and political circumstances and their technological abilities.

Human–environment interaction has also shaped Earth’s physical systems and features. For example, building on oceanfronts may increase erosion and alter the landscape. Clearing forests to make room for agriculture or cities changes the appearance of the landscape. Building dams and canals changes the way water flows.

Geographers approach the study of human–environment interaction in a variety of ways:

Environmental determinism: This is the view that the environment can overpower people and determine their culture and the direction and extent of their development. This is widely considered a not politically correct belief in geography. The main train of thought in environmental determinism is that an area’s physical characteristics, like climate, impact how people develop over time. For instance, a widely held idea was that the higher the civilization, the higher the latitude, as it was believed that people in hot climates had to rest a lot in order to keep their body temperature cool—so, over time, they became lazy and did not work very hard.

Human–cultural determinism: This is the view that culture overpowers and shapes the environment. This informs the view of many environmentalists that people are destroying the environment. The problem with this way of thinking is that it is an inadequate way to consider the relationship between humans and the environment because environment does much to shape our cultural activities.

Human–environment interaction: This is the idea that there is a cycle of interaction between humans and the environment that is complex and tautological—the environment shapes people and people shape the environment. We can look at this interaction through a variety of lenses:

• Impact of climate on the interaction: Climate influences humans and cultures, as people avoid places that are too hot, cold, wet, or dry. It also influences what kind of agriculture can be produced. But, on the other hand, people have learned to adapt to the environment—they developed air conditioning and heating and have used trade to get the goods they need if they cannot be produced where they live.

• Impact of vegetation on the interaction: The quality of soil and vegetation and access to irrigation can affect how people interact with the environment. For example, they can leave an area, develop it and find another use for it, use technology to provide an area for water, etc.

• Impact of landforms on the interaction: Landforms can shape human and cultural activities, like hunting. But humans and cultures can also adapt and change landforms to meet their needs, like building highways through mountains to make communication and transportation easier.

COMPETENCY 1.4

Analyze geographic information from maps, charts, and graphs.

During the FTCE Social Science 6–12 test, you will have to use maps, charts, and graphs. Familiarize yourself with the information provided before reading the questions. Typically, a map, chart, or graph will be displayed with a set of questions following it. Be sure you understand what the data reveals before proceeding to the questions.

Maps

What is a map? A map shows a view of an area. Maps are made for a variety of reasons: to represent an area that we cannot see, to show a phenomenon or process, to present information concisely, or to show spatial relationships. Maps are one of the basic tools of geography because they depict spatial information on paper so that the geographer can read and use information effectively.

A map is a two-dimensional model of the Earth or a portion of its surface. The process of mapmaking is called cartography. All maps include a somewhat simplified view of the Earth’s surface. Simplification is what a cartographer does to get rid of unnecessary details and focuses on the information