Back to the Wild: A Practical Manual for Uncivilized Times

By Alain Saury

This practical and poetic "survival manual" is the first English translation of the French masterpiece of living wild in the world and creating a permaculture. Back to the Wild is your source for everything from cartography to hunting and dressing wild game to cooking without a kitchen.

Its author, the late Alain Saury, was a respected author, poet, actor, activist, and artist who created the first vegetarian organization in France. His concerns about human survival in dangerous times inspired him to create this remarkable guidebook.

Beautifully designed and organized, the material in this book illustrates the importance in having an intimate relationship with nature, and it leads the reader back to wild, whether the journey is taken by choice or by necessity.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Process
• Release date: Jul 27, 2015
• ISBN: 9781934170595

Book preview

Introduction

If the worst should happen to our brutal species—at the hands of an imminent and immanent justice and a desirable fate (because disharmony is unbearable)—we may have only a few weeks, months, years, centuries … or just this single moment … with which to consult the works of art we have compiled for your use.

May this modest survival bible allow us the possibility of enduring in the reality of true hunger and no longer in the lie of genocidal appetites, or simply the possibility of meeting our needs without any lack.

Come! The man brings the child close to the river, near the woman sitting at the water’s edge. Who knows that everyone dies so that everything may live among the murmur of colors and words?

—Alain Saury, Now

Leitmotif drawing by Rav Bret Koch

Leitmotif drawing by Rav Bret Koch

Chapter One: Understanding Time and Weather

The Whirlwind of the Stars

In his remarkable book Under the Volcano, Malcolm Lowry portrays the death of his heroine Yvonne in a magnificent whirlwind of stars.

The sky was a sheet of white flame against which the trees and the poised rearing horse were an instant pinioned—they were the cars at the fair that were whirling around her; no, they were the planets, while the Sun stood, burning and spinning and glittering in the center; here they came again, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto; but they were not planets, for it was not the merry-go-round at all, but the Ferris wheel, they were constellations, in the hub of which, like a great cold eye burned Polaris, and round and round it here they went: Cassiopeia, Cepheus, the Lynx, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, and the Dragon; yet they were not constellations, but, somehow, myriads of beautiful butterflies, she was sailing into Acapulco harbour through a hurricane of beautiful butterflies, zigzagging overhead and endlessly vanishing astern over the sea, the sea, rough and pure, the long dawn rollers advancing, rising, and crashing down to glide in colorless ellipses over the sand, sinking, sinking …

1.1 Astronomy

There is the sky, the earth, and you. In other words: we live, contemplate, and judge. Elie Faure wrote: Universal form is built on a single basis. It can be discovered anywhere. True enough, but one must have the spirit of synthesis and analogy; most simply, one must be a poet or a prophet! Unfortunately, our increasingly specialized era is producing actions with very serious consequences because everyone is doing things his or her own way and the imbalance that we impose on our planet comes from this blindness caused by an indescribable laziness, an insane pride, a will to unconsciousness, and a disjointed and insatiable appetite.

In this chapter, I will provide some overall notions about some real forces upon which we are dependent, and that we disturb by either ignoring or trying to dominate. The only way to direct the Universe is to obey it, absolutely!

Definition: Astronomy is the science of stars—their constitution, relative position, and the laws governing their movements.

The Atmosphere

The gaseous layer surrounding the globe consists of 23% oxygen, 75% nitrogen, and 1.5% rare gases such as argon, neon, krypton, xenon, helium, radon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, nitric oxide, and ozone.

Atmospheric water plays a major role in the exchanges between the soil and the atmosphere. In the form of vapor, it reduces solar radiation; in liquid form it reduces the ground’s temperature—cools it. Atmospheric water consists of four major overlaying strata:

THE TROPOSPHERE the closest layer to the Earth—its altitude is about ten miles at the equator and about five miles at the poles, and it is the seat of hydrometeors (clouds, rain, snow…);

THE STRATOSPHERE a uniform layer that extends to about fifty miles above the Earth;

THE IONOSPHERE rich in ionized particles, which stretches some 620 miles in altitude;

THE EXOSPHERE the hottest layer, whose gaseous ions are in atomic form because they are endlessly bombarded by cosmic rays.

The Sun and the Moon

THE SUN A star that has a diameter of 865,000 miles and is located some 93,020,000 miles from Earth. 43% of the radiation from this ball of incandescent gas reaches our planet, 15% remains in the atmosphere, and 42% is reflected back into space.

THE MOON A planet 2,159 miles in diameter, 246,000 miles from the Earth; a hilly terrain; without any bodies of water or life forms; it performs an elliptical orbit around the Earth that takes around twenty-eight days—a lunar month which is broken down into four quarters: first quarter, full Moon, last quarter, new Moon.

The Moon’s gravitational pull, combined with that of the Sun, has an undeniable influence on the ocean tides and women’s menstrual cycles.

Note: Above all, the Earth can most benefit from these forces during a full Moon. According to Rudolf Steiner, at the moment the Moon detached from the Earth, the Earth had the most power to assure its growth because, prior to this separation, the mineral element did not exist. The Moon reflects the solar rays and cosmic radiation while immersing itself in their forces; this cosmic force is then carried to the plants and has a powerful effect on seed formation. During the new Moon, plants store up forces needed to bear fruit.

The Planets

The planets are the obscure bodies that gravitate around the Sun, as Earth does, and are most often situated in the southeast to southwestern area of our latitudes. Their rapid movement is highly visible, and each planet has invisible and visible periods depending on their position with regard to the Sun. Here they are presented in the order of their increasing distance in relation to the Sun.

MERCURY A burning desert on one hemisphere, glacial on the other; a diameter of 3,030 miles; visible for short periods: during the twilight hours of spring and at dawn in autumn. Revolution around the Sun = 88 days.

VENUS The shepherd’s star gravitates at a distance of 67,240,000 miles from the Sun; a diameter of 7,521 miles; a thick atmosphere makes it visible during the day. Revolution around the Sun = 225 days.

MARS Orbits an average of 142,000,000 miles from the Sun; a diameter of 4,221 miles; rarefied atmosphere; the brutal climate does not rule out the existence of elementary life forms. Revolution around the Sun = a little less than two years.

JUPITER Revolves some 484,000,000 miles from the Sun; a diameter of 88,846 miles; surrounded by sixty-three recorded satellites; it is uninhabitable as far as we know. Revolution around the Sun = 11 years and 315 days.

SATURN Gravitates some 886,000,000 miles from the Sun; a diameter of 74,600 miles; physical aspects compare with Jupiter but climate is more glacial. Revolution around the Sun = 29 years and six months.

URANUS 1,783,000,000 miles from the Sun; a diameter of 31,763 miles; we only see Uranus as a tiny speck of light in the sky. Revolution around the Sun = 84 years.

NEPTUNE Some 2,900,000,000 miles from the Sun; a diameter of 30,775 miles; no difference exists between night and day. Revolution around the Sun = 165 years.

PLUTO 40,000,000 miles from the Sun; a diameter of 1,600 miles. Revolution around the Sun = 248 years.

The Heat of the Planets

Concerning the planetary influence on plants, Rudolf Steiner distinguishes between two kinds of heat: that which acts above the Earth’s surface (a heat found in the domain of the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon), and that which acts beneath the ground (under the influence of Jupiter, Mars, and Saturn).

The first is a dead heat; it is the heat of flowers and leaves. The other is that of the root: it works inside the Earth as a living heat and has, within it, its own principle of inner life. The dead heat, absorbed by the Earth, comes alive gently—the most favorable time of year for this transformation is definitely midwinter.

The Stars

Man has named the stars in each constellation by descending order of brightness, using the Greek alphabet followed by Roman letters and numbers. They are classified by size or magnitude—not all stars have the same radiance; the brighter the star, the smaller its magnitude. These are stars that are fixed (or roughly so) in the sky, which glow on their own and are most likely Suns similar to ours. We distinguish between:

DOUBLE OR MULTIPLE STARS which are held back by gravity; a good example would be the famous triple star at the center of the Big Dipper.

STARS OF VARYING MAGNITUDE either double stars that are eclipsed (one is regularly eclipsed by the other), or by pulsating stars that swell and shrink.

PLANETARY NEBULAS their presence is due to matter that is emitted by the central star they surround like a halo.

STAR CLUSTERS hundreds of stars gather in these clusters; they appear like a very fine dust.

BALL-SHAPED NEBULAE recognizable by their appearance as large blurry patches; they are actual balls of millions of aggregated stars.

Acupuncture and the Hours of Magnitude

Note: The below is extracted from Psi Réalités, number 10: interview with Dr. J.C. de Tymowski by Alain Saury.

In spite of numerous differences, Eastern and Western medicine meet at a point that Chinese medicine calls the hour of magnitude. Just what is this hour of magnitude?

For Asians, the energy in the human body can manifest:

SUPERFICIALLY to protect against external threats.

ANCESTRALLY this corresponds with what the individual acquires genetically at fertilization. This energy shifts with age and its cessation causes what we call death.

NUTRITIONALLY this energy current provides life to the depths of the individual at the level of the viscera and their functions.

Traditional experience posits that energy spends two hours in each organ, beginning with the lungs at three o’clock in the morning. Let us not forget that breath and soul originate from the same word, the Latin anima, and that air is our first food. So the hour of magnitude is what we call the time frame that is best for treating an organ:

The Energy Path

3:00 a.m. to 5:00 a.m.: lungs (L);

5:00 a.m. to 7:00 a.m.: large intestine (LI);

7:00 a.m. to 9:00 a.m.: stomach (S);

9:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m.: spleen, pancreas (SpP);

11:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m.: heart (H);

1:00 p.m. to 3:00 p.m.: small intestine (SI);

3:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m.: bladder (B);

5:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m.: kidneys (K);

7:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m.: circulation, sexuality (CS);

9:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m.: digestive, genital and respiratory functions: triple warmer (TW);

11:00 p.m. to 1:00 a.m.: gall bladder (GB);

1:00 a.m. to 3:00 a.m.: liver (Li).

The Energy Path: One day, twenty-four hours, is divided into twelve sections, each giving a name on the meridian line.

The Energy Path: One day, twenty-four hours, is divided into twelve sections, each giving a name on the meridian line.

The Constellations

These are groups of stars that form districts or divisions over the expanse of the sky. To better understand the stars, the Ancients arranged them into sixty-six constellations, otherwise known as asterisms. Twelve of these constellations were numbered in the Zodiac, while twenty-four are in the northern sky and thirty in the southern. I thought it would be a good idea to place a fuller explanation of them in the section on Getting Your Bearings (Chapter Two). Indeed, knowing them is necessary and quite an advantage for orienting yourself!

The Earth

DEFINITION Our planet is a slightly flattened sphere that is 92,960,000 miles from the Sun. Its equatorial circumference is 24,901 miles, and its polar circumference is 24,860 miles. Earth is animated in a dual movement: its own rotation, which lasts 23 hours and 56 minutes, and its revolution around the Sun at 18.57 miles per second, for 365 and ¼ days.

ANNUAL CYCLE OF THE EARTH AROUND THE SUN (SOLSTICES AND EQUINOXES) At the summer solstice the Sun lies above the Tropic of Cancer: in the northern hemisphere, the days are the longest and the nights are the shortest of the year.

During the winter solstice, the Sun is over the Tropic of Capricorn; this is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the north. The conditions are the exact opposite of those presiding during the summer solstice.

During the fall and spring equinoxes, the Earth’s axis is tilted with respect to the rays of the Sun. The day and night are therefore equal all over the Earth. The equinoxes signal the beginning of spring and autumn.

TERRESTRIAL ROTATION AND WINDS The Earth effects a complete rotation every twenty-four hours. Each point on the equator therefore moves east, but all the points north and south of the equator move more slowly toward the east because the circumference of the planet shrinks as it moves away from the equator. At the poles, no movement is produced. These differences in speed of rotation at different latitudes influence the wind. In the southern hemisphere, if the winds move to the left, the phenomenon is the exact opposite in the northern hemisphere.

The unequal heating of the Earth is the cause of the north-south winds. The Earth’s rotation causes them to veer eastward or westward depending on the hemisphere. This change creates whirling air masses called high-pressure cells or anticyclones, and low-pressure cells or depressions. The movements in the high-pressure winds steer from high to low pressure but their circulation is altered by the Earth’s rotation.

1.2 Time

The Divisions of Time

THE YEAR The duration of the year is, according to Lalande, 365 days with the exception of the bissextile year, or leap year, which occurs every four years and has 366 days. Julius Caesar was responsible for this addition.

THE MONTH For centuries, a distinction has been made between two kinds of months. These include the solar month—the time required by the Sun to travel over a line of the Zodiac—and the lunar (periodic or synodic) month, the length of time the Moon requires to return to the same spot in the sky; the synod is the length of time that has elapsed from one new Moon to the next.

Julius Caesar ordered that months would alternate between those of 30 or 31 days, except for February, which, in the regular years, would have 29 days. Augustus was upset that the month bearing his name was shorter than July (the month of Julius Caesar) and took a day from February to add to those of August.

THE WEEK The custom of dividing time into seven days comes from earliest antiquity, a natural division as it is made in accordance with the phases of the Moon. This division was thereby composed in honor of the seven planets, with each day bearing the name of one of these bodies. Thus, Monday is the day of the Moon, Tuesday the day of Mars (from the Latin dies Martis, day of Mars), Wednesday that of Mercury, Thursday that of Jupiter, Friday that of Venus, Saturday is Saturn’s day, and Sunday represents the Sun. It is presumed that the order of the planets in the days of the week is based on the belief in the planets’ influence over the hours of a day.

THE DAY This is the division of the day based on the appearance and disappearance of the Sun. There are two kinds of day:

Natural days: the time during which the Sun is above the horizon.

Artificial day: the time the Sun takes to make a full revolution.

We owe the Babylonians the division of a day into twelve equal parts, called hours.

The Sundial

Several elements are involved in the crafting of a Sundial. It is necessary to understand these in order to use a Sundial properly.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF A GNOMON Take a small board and affix a metal rod (any kind of metal will do) in its center. Place it in the Sun and note the direction of the shadow cast by the rod. Next, with the help of a watch, indicate the hours corresponding to the shadow as it moves during the day.

Note: The straight line drawn by the Sun, the tip of the rod, and the extreme edge of the shadow at noon is a place’s meridian.

THE MERIDIAN Stick a gnomon in the ground and mark the outermost edge of the shadow cast by the rod with chalk. Next a circle is drawn, whose radius will be the distance between this point and the base of the stake. When the outermost edge of the shadow of the stake again cuts the circle, mark the point of this second intersection with chalk. Then draw the bisector (the line that divides an angle into two equal parts) of the angle formed by the two points marked in the ground. This bisector is called the meridian.

BUILDING A SUNDIAL All you need to do is place a gnomon (the instrument consisting of a rod that casts a shadow on a flat surface) on a dial.

The horizontal Sundial: place the stylus (the rod of the gnomon) on a flat surface. This surface should be oriented in such a way that the north-south line coincides with the meridian line of its location. The number 12 should indicate north. Then place the stylus vertically in such a way that it forms an angle with the horizontal surface that is the same degree as the latitude of its location (for example, the latitude of Seattle would be 47.6°, that of Boston would be 42.3°). When the Sun casts the shadow of the stylus over the flat surface or dial, it will indicate the hour. To know the exact hour, all you need to do is mark the outermost edge of the shadow when the Sun is at noon and so on for the other hours. In order to get the morning hours, proceed hour by hour until noon.

The vertical Sundial: This dial should be attached to a vertical wall. This time the stylus should make an angle with the dial, itself an angle that equals the complement of the latitude (Grenoble, France, for example, has a latitude of 45°. Thus, 90–45 = 45°).

An Homage to the Sun by Michel Tournier, Vendredi ou les limbes du Pacifique (Friday or the Limbo of the Pacific), Paris: Gallimard (Folio), 1972:

Sun, deliver me from gravity. Cleanse my blood of its thick humors that certainly protect me from extravagance and heedlessness, but which break my youthful enthusiasm and extinguishes my joy in life … Teach me irony. Teach me light-heartedness, laughing acceptance of the immediate gifts of this day, without calculation, without gratitude, without fear … I am an arrow shot toward your core, a pendulum whose perpendicular profile defines your sovereignty over the Earth, the stylus of the Sundial on which a needle of shadow inscribes your progress. I am your witness standing upon this Earth, like a sword steeped in the flames.

The Clepsydra

After humans had discovered the means to measure time with the help of the Sun’s rays, they quickly realized the insufficiency of this device, which was useless during the night or under heavy overcast skies, as noted by the fine ancient saying: the Sun clock only counts the light hours. This was when the clepsydra, or water clock, was invented. The Greek word clepsydre means water thief, an allusion to the almost imperceptible flow of fluid from one container into the other.

To construct this apparatus, set up a jar or bowl whose contents will flow out completely in twenty-four hours when a hole is pierced in the bottom to allow the water to pour out one drop at a time. Draw twenty-four parallel circles around the body of the container to indicate the passage of the hours (at the line just above the water level). After drawing the space between two hours on the bowl, you must avoid using this same measure for the other hours as the water will not flow out uniformly throughout the day. The greater the volume of water, the stronger the pressure, which will make the water flow more quickly, and vice versa.

Note: It is easy to imagine a clepsydra connected by a glass tube to the container that catches the flow of liquid. This could be turned over every twenty-four hours like an hourglass. Remember, though, that unlike the hourglass, the receptacles of the clepsydra cannot be hermetically sealed, so some will evaporate and periodic adjustments will be required.

The Hourglass

The hourglass—or sand clock—consists of a glass pinched by a thin neck that divides it into two equal parts shaped like a pear. These two pear shapes are connected by a thin sluice that allows the sand to flow through uniformly. It should be noted that over the course of the years, the glass and the sand will be worn away by friction. So the older the hourglass, the quicker it will empty.

Here is an extract from Ernst Junger’s Essay on Man and Time with some reflections about this instrument:

We can consider the hourglass to be a hieroglyph that designates time. As such, it has its fixed meaning and defined place. No other measurer of time has become such an obvious symbol. The hieroglyph time, like all symbols, touches the soul in two ways. On the one hand, it gives a sense of the familiar, well-being, of feeling at home. Time is the field we cultivate, in which we take our pleasure and display our talents. It bestows the joys that it swallows immediately, inasmuch as it leads all the objects and efforts of this world to nothingness. This is why the sight of an hourglass also fills us with sorrow. In all its nuances, this sorrow is one and the same: it is felt in the forecourt that leads only to a portal. Melancholy, ennui, satiety are forms of fear—the fear of death. So we should enrich the significance of the hourglass with an additional meaning using an image by Albrecht Dürer as our starting point. This is his famous engraving Knight, Death, and the Devil, which he created in 1513. In it we see the knight in a procession being spurred on by a hideous depiction of the devil. Death is riding next to him, as if seeking to bar his path. Death has taken the form of time and its insignia, those of nothingness and return: the serpent and the hourglass. He is holding the hourglass in his right hand, and presenting it to the knight. Sight of this image strengthens our confidence. We feel that the knight, down here or elsewhere, is the master of the situation. The castle on the summit fills the hollow path with its splendor: it more resembles the palace of a king than the home of a knight. But it probably represents the city of David, the city built on high. Its foundations sit outside of time. Whatever happens, one can place his trust in it—even and especially when the hourglass is broken. The knight’s serenity is founded on it. And yet, we can admit that even temporally, the knight will emerge victorious from the procession. The spirit of the engraving makes it quite visible, and even if some cannot feel it, they will realize it on observing that the upper bulb of the hourglass is still half-full, not all the sand has flowed out of it. All of us can find only advantage when we sometimes fall into such processions to be presented as we are to the masters of the world and time. It is this that is heartfelt.

Incense Clocks

Incense clocks measure the passage of time through the combustion or slow fusion of certain substances. These devices serve two useful purposes: they provide light and they tell time. But they are not very precise, since the combustibles, such as candlewicks, do not burn evenly.

The oil or gas lamp also indicates the passage of time by the amount of liquid it has consumed. All that is needed is to calibrate the glass container.

In the teahouses of Japan, the incense sticks burned were used to calculate the remuneration owed the geishas. When a geisha went with a customer, the teahouse owner lit a stick of incense that would indicate a certain tariff by the length of time it was lit.

Other Means of Measuring Time

BY PLANTS Various plants also possess a precise recording of the passage of time, but due to their lesser mobility they experience each period more deeply. They indicate the season, and to those who know how to read them, they tell the different hours of the day by the opening or closing of their petals, and the position of their stalks and leaves.

BY BIRDS The music that birds make follows a temporal pattern, as seen in the songs of the nightingale and lark. The rooster, meanwhile, plays the role of the morning alarm clock: in some monasteries the monks placed the chicken coop in the east, and in this way, the community would be awoken by the rooster crowing at the first hours of the day.

By animals: The Chinese and Japanese could read the hour in the eyes of their cats, through the dilation and contraction of their pupils.

Note: There are individuals who are so sensitive to the life of nature that they have no need of clocks to tell the time, but few among us are so in tune with nature that it can orchestrate our days and nights.

1.3 Understanding and Predicting the Weather

The Major Causes for Variations in the Weather

AIR PRESSURE Like all fluids, the air of the atmosphere exerts pressure on the surfaces with which it is in contact; this is known as atmospheric pressure. It varies with altitude—the higher one climbs, the thinner the air, and the less air there is above, the less it weighs—and temperature.

HUMIDITY The warmer the air, the more water vapor it contains, until it reaches a certain limit called the saturation point. When warm air rises, it cools off and the water vapor it has stored then surpasses that point and escapes in tiny drops and ice crystals (hence the formation of clouds and rain).

These constants—atmospheric pressure and the humidity of the air—occupy a major place in climate differentiation. Climatology, in stark contrast to meteorology, is a retrospective grouping of general characteristics.

The Different Climates Around the Globe

THE CLIMATES OF THE COLD ZONES The average temperatures are quite cold and sometimes fall far below zero. The winds can be intense and violent and there is little precipitation because the air is so cold, except for large snowfalls.

THE TEMPERATE CLIMATES It is important to note that the word temperate means moderate because of the combination of different climates, not that all contrast is missing. The annual temperature range (meaning the gap between the warmest month and the coldest month) is rarely lower than 14°C and can be as much as 27°C. There can be sharp contrasts in precipitation rates ranging from torrential rains to draught.

THE CONTINENTAL CLIMATES AND THOSE OF THE EASTERN FRONT The continental effect is displayed by a strong thermal range due primarily to the low temperatures of winter. On the eastern fronts, the thermal range is also strong but is primarily due in this instance to the very high summer temperatures. Rainfall is abundant here.

ARID AND SEMI-ARID CLIMATES Semi-arid regions are recognizable by their vegetation: grassy steppes where growth is dependent on the presence or absence of water. In arid regions, plant life is quite scattered. When waterways exist, they are not permanent and never reach the sea. The dryness comes from an imbalance between the high evaporation of water with respect to the amount of precipitation. Their climatic characteristics can be attributed to the small rainfall and the irregularity of its occurrence, and the excessively warm temperatures. The harsh variations of the temperatures in desert regions cause rocks to shatter; they are also eaten away by the wind, a phenomenon known as aeolian erosion.

DAMP, TROPICAL CLIMATES The temperatures here are characterized by a diurnal range (27°C to 36°C) that is higher than the annual temperature range (never higher than 18°C). The temperature curve is influenced by that of the rainfalls, with the highest occurring before the rainy season.

MOUNTAIN CLIMATES Mountains exert a strong influence over precipitation, which makes it quite abundant. Temperature inversions also play a role. This is in fact somewhat higher in the mountains than on the plains, but the thermal range is always smaller in the mountains.

The Various Types of Climatic Classification

The most commonly used system is the one based on a combination of rainfall and temperatures; another is based on water conditions, and another on the hilly nature of the terrain, which can carve out a local climate zone that differs from that of the general climate of the region. This local zones are known as micro-climates.

Note: The sea warms and cools more slowly than the land; the maritime air therefore has a moderating effect on the change of the seasons.

The Weather and the Sea

I guess what the weather will be from the dawn

The speed of the wind and the certain storm,

For my soul is a little like that of the semaphores,

And their sisters, the beacons, and that of darkened lighthouses.

Jean de la Ville de Mirmont (L’Horizon chimérique, Paris: Ed. Seghers)

Ocean Winds

Wind causes a superficial agitation of the ocean from a dead calm. The first disturbance is called light air, whose speed of one to four miles an hour barely ripples the water’s surface; wavelength (the distance between two successive crests) can be measured in centimeters. With a light breeze (five to seven mph), the wavelength and the size of the crests increase. With a gentle breeze (eight to eleven mph) the trough of the wave grows so quickly in proportion to the wavelength that the crests begin to break. When the wind goes above eleven mph, some white caps will appear. They will become more numerous as the wind speed increases and their frequency can be used to determine sea conditions. The speed with which the waves advance increases in proportion to the increase of wavelength. When these crests break over each other from different directions, the ocean is described as choppy, or in marine parlance as sea wind.

Analysis and Prediction

The directions that waves form within a meteorological depression are quite varied and for a fairly large distance all that remain are waves moving in one single direction. The long waves that hit the shore in advance of the shorter waves are a herald of bad weather. This causes the zone of unsettled weather that follows the direction the waves are spreading to spread as well. This is how waves can be generated at great distances in marine regions where the wind has no connection to the one that governs the zone where the waves were created. These waves then consist of regular undulations that are known as swells. Analysis of the measures available at sea on the energy transferred from the wind to the water has led specialists to establish forecast methods of sea conditions based on meteorological elements.

Swells as Charted by Mathematicians

These swells are defined by their wave period T (the interval of time separating the passage of two successive crests by a particular point) in conjunction with its length L (the distance between two crests reckoned perpendicularly) and its velocity g or speed of generation, creating the formula L = gT. The total range, or trough 2a, is the vertical distance between the crest and the trough. The ratio 2a/L is the curve. Now let’s imagine that we can follow the destiny of a regular swell from a well-defined period T and moving toward the shore. Two distinctions need to be made to help pursue this analysis.

ABSENCE OF REFRACTION When the crests are parallel to the curves of the level, their different points will be continually situated above the same water depth. As the depths shrink, the wavelength and velocity will also diminish, and the crests will become closer to each other. The range and the curve increase even more when the curve of the wave was barely pronounced in the open sea. Extremely long swells are therefore those that swell the most before breaking.

REFRACTION The swell hits the lines of the sea bottom level, and the crests and their trajectory obliquely; the orthogonals also curve. This phenomenon of the bending of crests and their orthogonal lines is called wave refraction. When the convex part of the crest turns toward the coast, the orthogonal lines separate toward the shore. The energy of the swell opens over a larger sector and its range shrinks. Conversely, when the concave side of the wave faces the coast, the orthogonal lines converge, with a corresponding increase in range and energy. Refraction has the effect of concentrating the swell’s energy on the capes and opening it up in the bays.

THE WAVE PLAN Knowledge of the swell’s characteristics in the open seas makes it possible, based on a rectilinear crest, to identify the pattern of this same wave during its trajectory toward the shore in accordance with its velocity, which gives us a blueprint of the wave. The effects of refraction on its range combined with the effects connected to depth variation make it possible to predetermine all the characteristics that a swell still in open waters will have when hitting shallow water. These prediction methods have played a large role in the preparation for landing operations as well as resupplying bridgeheads.

I met old sea fishermen on the Isle of Sein who could predict the daily weather for several months in advance by spending many hours contemplating the sea and by observing the waves in the thousands of forms.

When disruption of waves of varying length occurs, multiple forms emerge into space, water therefore has the potential to engender forms out of simple orientations of forces and movements. In the liquid element, various movements can interpenetrate and overlay each other in one same spot. At their place of origin, waves and currents are distinct entities, but they can also combine. Blood circulation in the human being and in the higher animals clearly shows that the unique nature of a being is expressed in the rhythmic currents that travel through it. Man, as we see him, is a finished form, but this form is created by movement. It was engendered by archetypal forms that combined and broke down; the mobile was not born of the immobile; it is the immobile whose source is in the mobile.

—Theodore Schwenk; June 24, 1924 lecture, Rudolf Steiner

Tidal Currents

The vertical oscillations of the sea level are accompanied by horizontal movements that are tidal currents, which are characterized by their direction. Any difference in level between two points implies the flow of a water current. Sufficiently extensive study of tidal currents makes it possible to predict them.

The Tidal Wave

Tidal waves are caused by brutal upheavals of the ocean that have several possible origins: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, storms, and so forth.

A distinction is made between those connected to seismic activity: tsunamis, and those to meteorological phenomena: storm surges.

a) Land-caused tsunamis: A tsunami cannot be seen by a ship on the open sea. It can begin with the water of the sea receding away from the shore or by an enormous wave; the wave that first follows the retreat of the water can often be the most destructive. But this is not a general rule.

b) Storm surges: The sea level reacts to wind, particularly when close to the shoreline, but it also reacts to changes in atmospheric pressure. Sea level can shrink or increase. When the level rises one centimeter, the pressure lowers by one millibar: this is why the reaction of the sea level to pressure variation is known as static pressure. The increase is considerable when the speed of the latter is equal to the speed the pressure is lifting off of the sea. This creates a resonance that is compounded by the rising waters caused by the winds. Although rare, these waves can be truly devastating.

Meteorological Instruments

Temperature and Thermometers

THE THERMOMETER This instrument is used to read temperatures. It consists of a calibrated glass tube with a bulge at the bottom that holds a liquid (alcohol or mercury). Its principle is based on the dilation of this liquid. It should be kept out of direct sunlight and protected from the rain.

THE ALCOHOL THERMOMETER This instrument measures the minimal temperatures. While the column of alcohol expands, the index does not move upward, remaining near the base of the tube, therefore indicating the lowest temperatures.

THE MERCURY THERMOMETER This measures maximal temperatures: the index remains in the place reached by the highest temperature.

Air Humidity

THE PSYCHROMETER This instrument consists of two thermometers. The reservoir of one is wrapped with wet muslin, which, as it evaporates, will lower the temperature of the instrument. The temperature difference will thereby indicate the relative air humidity.

To obtain the degree of humidity, it is combined with a dial. To calibrate it, seal the entire apparatus in a wash boiler with several grams of sodium chloride (which will cause the air to lose its humidity). When you take the instrument out of the container, mark 0 at the point reached by the needle. Perform the same experiment using warm water (this will saturate the air with humidity) and mark the needle’s resting point with 100. Next divide the space between this numerals into equal parts.

HAIR HYGROMETER A hair is hung on a rod in such a way that it is entirely free to move vertically. About forty centimeters below its top end roll the hair strand around a cork on which a needle has been attached. At the other end, attach a weight that will keep it stretched to its full length. When humidity rises, the hair will lengthen, thereby causing the cork to rotate (and vice versa if humidity falls). It is fact that this material will shrink in dry air and expand in moist air.

HYGROSCOPES Small objects covered with cobalt salts that change color based on the degree of humidity.

Precipitation (Rain, Snow, and So On)

RAIN GAUGE This device is used to measure rainfall. It consists of a container equipped with a funnel. To determine the actual amount of rain that has fallen, all you need to do is find the ratio of the container opening and the funnel opening.

For example, if the container is 120 mm in diameter and the funnel is 65 mm, the ration would be [120 × 120 over 65 × 65] = 3.40 mm, with each gradation equaling one mm of rain.

A device like this can be made using a jelly jar and a funnel. If they are the same in diameter, the height of the water fallen can be measured directly with a ruler.

Air Dynamics

MERCURY BAROMETER This device is used to measure atmospheric pressure. It consists of an upside down glass tube mounted on a small vat. The entire apparatus is filled with mercury. Because the vat is open to the air, it is subject to its pressure. The higher the mercury climbs up the tube, the higher the pressure, and vice versa.

ANEROID BAROMETER This device is made with an enameled sheet metal vat that contains no air. Corrugations and a spring prevent the air pressure from crushing it. When air pressure increases it expands, and when it diminishes, it contracts. These variations are transmitted to a rotating pointer on a dial by a series of pulleys and levers.

Wind Direction

WEATHER VANE This device determines the directions of ground winds. To make one, take a metal sheet that is about twelve by eight inches and place it on a vertical axis; an arrow-shaped counterweight will provide balance and indicate the wind direction. In order to ensure the overall mobility of the device, a glass bead can be placed at its base. The instrument is complete once the indications of the four cardinal points have been added.

THE NEPHOSCOPE This device is used to determine the direction of winds at cloud level. To make one, draw a wind rose (a star with thirty-two divisions corresponding to the thirty-two wind zones on a compass dial) in white on dark-colored cardboard that is around eight inches in diameter. Then take a square of glass and another piece of dark cardboard that is the same size. Cut a hole in the dark cardboard that has a diameter of eight inches and place it over the glass, which will be used as a cover over the wind rose. The wind rose will be visible through the glass but there will be enough reflection to see the clouds overhead.

To determine the velocity of the clouds, place a stiff piece of wire that has been coiled at one end perpendicular to the mirror’s surface (to serve as an eyepiece). Stick the other end of the wire (which should be eight inches long) into a cork. Once the wire has been inserted, keep watch for a cloud through the eyepiece because it is important that it cross over the center of the mirror. As soon as the cloud passes over the indicated point, start the timer. Turn it off as soon as the front of the cloud reaches the edge of the mirror. Once this has been done, all that is left to do is a simple calculation.

For example, a cloud at an altitude of around 1200 meters has taken two minutes to cross the mirror. 1,200 / 120 = 10 miles per hour, which corresponds to the 6th degree of the Beaufort Scale.

THE BEAUFORT SCALE Ground wind velocity can be determined by noting their effect on the surrounding objects.

Wind Readings Based on the Beaufort Scale

Empirical Forecasts

Meteorological Animals

ANIMAL BAROMETERS A frog trapped in a bowl can predict the rain if it stays at the bottom, and nice weather if it climbs a ladder left there for this purpose.

A leech placed in a bowl can forecast nice weather if it curls into a spiral, a storm if it stays at the bottom, and rain if it climbs back to the surface.

A spider heralds good weather by the length of its threads: if rain is imminent, they shrink and remain like that as long as the weather is unsettled.

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR THAT FORECASTS GOOD WEATHER Bats soar in silence, the owls hoot, the nightingales sing at the top of their voice, frogs and toads croak in the evening, lizards come out of their holes, and cats hurl themselves about full tilt in the house or garden. Insects fly higher pursued by swallows, goats caper about, and the rooster crows at odd times of the day and flaps its wings in the morning.

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR THAT FORECASTS BAD WEATHER Snails will extend their horns fully outside their shells and slugs will appear in the flowerbeds. Butterflies skim near windows, cows cluster together in the fields, and cats will place a paw behind one ear. Chickens cluck around 10:30 at night and bees swarm back to their hives; pigs play about and scatter their litters, goats become belligerent, and insects and the swallows that feed on them fly closer to the ground.

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR THAT FORECASTS STORMS Flies become annoying and land just anywhere; mosquitos and ants come indoors seeking shelter, and hens bothered by aphids will roll in the dust.

Note: There is a plant from the thistle family called carlina (or carline thistle) whose flowers close at night or in rainy weather. This peculiarity has earned it the nickname barometer.

The Seasons

THE STAGES OF THE SEASONS Spring, summer, autumn, and winter follow one other tirelessly and colorfully mark our memories, even the most banal. All eras have experienced periods of extreme heat and cold. If we were to fold the year in half, one half over the other, we would find an amazing symmetry between the months: January-July (midwinter-midsummer), February-August (very cold-very hot), March-September (end of winter, end of summer), April-October (first buds-first dead leaves), May-November (flowers of life, flowers on graves), June-December (light-darkness). The changing conditions that accompany each month have inspired rural proverbs for centuries if not millennia as country dwellers are the ones affected deeply enough by seasonal changes to get the most knowledge out of them.

SAYINGS AND PROVERBS FOR EACH MONTH OF THE YEAR

January

A snowy year heralds a bountiful wheat crop.

A windy year heralds a bountiful apple harvest.

Frost in January means wheat in the barn.

If it does not rain in January, you must add supports to your granary.

Gold from January Sun is a gold all should envy.

The first twelve days of January indicate the weather for each of the next twelve months.

Thunder in January, tons of manure.

February

Of all the months of the year curse a fair February.

Dew on Candlemas, winter on its last days.

February snow burns the wheat.

If February gives much snow, a fine summer it does foreshadow.

The current bush never buds until February has passed.

March

February fills the ditches, it is March’s task to dry them out.

Easter never comes without leaves.

Rainy Easters often foreshadow a rich wheat harvest.

A windy March means apple-filled orchards.

When March comes in like a lion, it goes out like a lamb.

As it rains in March, so it rains in June.

March rains fatten neither goose nor gander.

The shepherds predicted the harshness of the winter by the proportion of males and females born in lambing season. Indeed, if there were a lot of males, the winter would be long and severe as nature curbed future births in order to adjust the population to the resources available for the following year. The number of onion skins also foretold winter’s duration by how thick they grew.

April

April showers bring May flowers.

Frost in April and May, truly foretells poor months ahead.

Lambs and bees in April are easily frightened.

April and May are the key of all the year.

A cold April, much bread and little wine.

May

A cold May and a windy April, a full barn.

A windy May makes a fair year.

Wheat and wine are born in May.

May showers bring milk and meat.

Mud in May, fine harvest in August.

May heat greens the hedge.

May buds fill the wine storehouse.

June

When it rains on Saint Medard’s Day (June 8) it will rain forty days later, but if it rains on Saint Profitis’ Day (June 19), it will rain for the next forty days.

A Saint John’s Day (June 24) rain takes away the walnuts and hazelnuts.

June damp and warm does the farmer no harm.

Cut your thistles before Saint John’s Day and you will have two instead of one.

A calm June puts the farmer in tune.

A wet June makes a dry September.

If June is sunny, the harvest will come early.

July

Summer for harvesting, autumn for wine.

When the rooster limps in summer, rain is not far off.

Those who in July are wed, must labor for their daily bread.

August

Don’t take the sickle out after August.

August rain grows truffles and chestnuts.

For every fog in August, there will be a snowfall in the winter ahead.

Rain in early August does not bode well for second crops.

August rushes by like a desert rainfall.