Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: 3rd Edition

By William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr.

Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, now in its third edition, is a classic hermeneutics textbook that sets forth concise, logical, and practical guidelines for discovering the truth in God’s Word.

With updates and revisions throughout that keep pace with current scholarship, this book offers students the best and most up-to-date information needed to interpret Scripture.

Introduction to Biblical Interpretation:

• Defines and describes hermeneutics, the science of biblical interpretation
• Suggests effective methods to understand the meaning of the biblical text
• Surveys the literary, cultural, social, and historical issues that impact any text
• Evaluates both traditional and modern approaches to Bible interpretation
• Examines the reader’s role as an interpreter of the text and helps identify what the reader brings to the text that could distort its message
• Tackles the problem of how to apply the Bible in valid and significant ways today
• Provides an extensive and revised annotated list of books that readers will find helpful in the practice of biblical interpretation

Used in college and seminary classrooms around the world, this volume is a trusted and valuable tool for students and other readers who desire to understand and apply the Bible.

 

• Language: English
• Publisher: Zondervan
• Release date: Mar 28, 2017
• ISBN: 9780310524182

William W. Klein

William W. Klein (PhD, Aberdeen) is professor of New Testament at Denver Seminary. He is author of The New Chosen People: A Corporate View of Election and a commentary on Ephesians in the Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Revised Edition and serves as both editor and co-author of Introduction to Biblical Interpretationwith Craig Blomberg and Robert Hubbard. Bill and his wife have two daughters and reside in Littleton, Colorado.   X

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ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviations in the following lists occur throughout the text of the book and in the footnotes. Abbreviations are also found in the concluding bibliography, which lists extensive sources.

BOOKS OF THE BIBLE AND RELATED WORKS

Hebrew Bible / Old Testament

New Testament

Deuterocanonical Works

Josephus

Talmud

Apostolic Fathers

Latin Works

Ancient Texts

VERSIONS AND EDITIONS OF THE BIBLE

JOURNALS, MAJOR REFERENCE WORKS, AND SERIALS

GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

We three authors are enormously gratified that a third edition of our book is warranted. The first edition appeared in 1993 to be followed about a decade later in 2004 by edition two. Now, after an elapse of a little more than another decade, we are pleased to offer this third edition to a new generation of students. The subject of hermeneutics—biblical interpretation—continues to occupy prominence in the fields of biblical and theological studies. That assessment is certainly borne out in the ongoing flood of articles, essays, and books that appear—some, like this one, in multiple editions. That should be no surprise: what the Bible means by what is written, and what its significance is to the church and individual believers, are not insignificant issues. In fact, they are paramount!

We followed the process of composing this edition in the same ways as in the preceding editions, and we ask readers to review the Preface to Second Edition for that process. Happily, Robert Hubbard returned to live in Denver a few years ago, so we have enjoyed, again, the opportunity for in-person engagement in our writing and editing (and warm friendship). This book represents one of the delights of scholarly collaboration—the chance to work together as friends and colleagues, as well as to pool our scholarship for the sake of Christ’s church.

Like the edition before it, this third edition reflects some important changes due to developments in the extensive fields that we attempt to cover. For example, we give much more space to speech-act theory than in the former edition. Beyond that, we have updated the discussions on two fronts. First, what we three veteran Bible teachers write here builds on more than one hundred years of combined teaching and study. We believe our refinements in this volume reflect our more mature (and we hope more adequate and correct) thinking about this crucial task. Second, we have witnessed many advances as well revisions in various scholars’ thinking and writings about the topics we engage; we need to interact with these scholars in our goal to be faithful interpreters of God’s Holy Scriptures. These advances, we believe, require that we revisit and refine some of the things we said a dozen years ago.

As with the previous editions, we continued to profit from many colleagues both at Denver Seminary (Blomberg and Klein), and at North Park University (Hubbard). Some of their insights appear at various places, as well as in the footnotes—though often without specific acknowledgement. In addition, we have benefitted from our students in our classes and from colleagues in various institutions who have used the book—both in their teaching and studying. Many of these scholarly colleagues are also reflected in the footnotes and bibliography of the book. These resources are extensive and expansive, our conscious tactic that we hope will allow interested readers to pursue in more detail some of the matters that we are able to pursue far too briefly (although students might complain that the book is too large already!). And we repeat what we acknowledged in the previous preface: many people have influenced our thinking and ways of expression in ways that we can no longer recall or properly document. We give them our grateful thanks nonetheless. As well, books do not land on publishers’ lists without the significant efforts of editors. We wish to thank Katya Covrett, Executive Editor of Zondervan Academic, for encouraging us to produce this edition.

As before, we acknowledge three mentors who blazed some trails of biblical interpretation for us to follow: Donald W. Burdick, D. A. Carson, and David A. Hubbard. We thanked them previously and do so again. But to this trio of men we add a trio of women. With this edition we gratefully honor our three wives from whom we have also learned much about the nature and importance of biblical interpretation, each in their own ways. So thank you: Phyllis Klein, Fran Blomberg, and Pam Hubbard. You have blessed us with your godly examples and faithful discipleship in the ways of Christ. While Paul wrote his words about two women in Philippi, well do we apply them to our wives, . . . these women since they have contended at [our] side in the cause of the gospel . . . whose names are in the book of life (Phil 4:3).

William W. Klein

Craig L. Blomberg

Robert L. Hubbard, Jr.

February 2016

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

Much has happened within the discipline of biblical interpretation in the years since the first edition of this book appeared in 1993. Many worthy volumes and innumerable articles, essays, and chapters have appeared steadily over the years. Clearly this remains a hot topic, as it should. In addition, the landscape of biblical studies and biblical interpretation has changed in many ways. We are faced with new understandings of how language functions, the rise and demise of several approaches to evaluating texts, differing attempts to assess the nature of meaning, and the increased influence of postmodernism, to name a few. Several important translations and versions of the Bible have appeared.

We have been gratified to witness the widespread use of the first edition of this book since it was published. It has served as a textbook in many classes in colleges and seminaries. It has been translated into several other languages and is used widely. But, given the changes over these past years, we welcomed the opportunity to alter the way we said some things, to rearrange some of the parts, to bring some issues from the appendix into the main text, and, very importantly, to bring the discussions of many issues, the footnotes, and the annotated bibliography up to date. We have read many reviews of the book and have learned from reviewers and users their assessments of its strengths and weaknesses. As we approached the process of revision, we solicited and received targeted and extremely helpful comments from several valued colleagues in other institutions who have used the book regularly in their classes. We appreciate very much the time and effort they gave us in their assessments.

We offer this volume to advance the practice of biblical interpretation—also called hermeneutics—in this generation. A comprehensive yet readable text, it covers all the key issues in interpreting the Bible. We have incorporated insights from beyond biblical studies themselves—philosophy, linguistics, the social sciences, and literary criticism, among others. We have written this book not merely to collate and report others’ findings—though we have certainly done much of that—but also to propose our own strategy for this crucial venture of interpretation. The book brims with biblical examples to demonstrate the principles under discussion. We strive to show students not merely what interpretation is all about, but how to interpret.

How did such a book emerge, and how do three authors write a book together? Initially Dr. Klein proposed the idea of a new volume on hermeneutics and wrote the original outline. Soon he realized how formidable a task this would be, so he recruited three colleagues, all professors at Denver Seminary, and they divided the tasks of research and writing equally among themselves. Unexpectedly, other Seminary responsibilities forced Dr. Kermit Ecklebarger to withdraw from the project. He was able to provide input for the chapters on the history of interpretation, general rules of hermeneutics, and application. The task fell to the remaining three—Dr. Klein and Dr. Blomberg covered the New Testament field, and Dr. Hubbard represented Old Testament studies.

To maximize the value of our backgrounds and expertise, we decided that all three would be involved in everything produced. So each wrote his assigned sections and then read the others’ drafts. We made extensive comments and suggested revisions, deletions, or insertions. Where genuine differences and disagreements surfaced we discussed the issues until a consensus was reached; we wanted to produce a text that all could affirm. Ultimately, Dr. Klein served as the final editor with freedom to alter and edit as necessary to produce the final manuscript.

Since the first edition appeared, Robert Hubbard moved from Denver to take up a teaching post at North Park Theological Seminary in Chicago. Drs. Blomberg and Klein remain at Denver Seminary. We three employed the same approach in this revision as we did in the initial writing. We returned each chapter to its original author to perform the initial revision—taking into consideration all the reviews and comments we received. We circulated each revised chapter to the other two authors for comments, critique, suggestions for revisions and corrections, and then returned it to the author for a rewrite in view of these reactions. We were more ruthless with each other than before. When we were satisfied that we had the best product, William Klein again did the final editing. We hope that the resulting volume weds the best of our individual and joint competencies. We have verified the truth of the proverb, As iron sharpens iron, so one man sharpens another (Prov 27:17). By absorbing each other’s critical comments, we grew to appreciate one another’s abilities and understanding of God’s truth. We have remained good friends, and we believe our joint efforts have produced a volume that will yield a rich harvest of faithful interpreters and doers of God’s Holy Word.

We wish to thank Wayne Kinde, Director of Reference and Professional Books at Thomas Nelson, for enthusiastically agreeing to produce this second edition. As well, it was a pleasure to work directly with Lee Hollaway, Managing Editor of Nelson Reference & Electronic Publishing, who helped oversee the project in a hands-on way. We were again assisted and blessed by the efforts of several colleagues at Denver Seminary—with research assistance by Prof. Elodie Emig and the word processing and indexing skills of Ms. Jeanette Freitag. Our research also benefited from sabbaticals granted by our schools, from their fine libraries and expert staffs, and from the input of teaching assistant Paul Corner of North Park Theological Seminary. We also thank the theological faculty of the University of Tübingen, Germany, for its hospitality and the use of its excellent libraries during one sabbatical.

No book surfaces apart from the contributions of numerous people beyond the author or, in this case, authors. Dr. Timothy P. Weber graciously read the chapter on the history of interpretation. Dr. M. Daniel Carroll R. provided extensive comments on the chapters on the Old Testament. Our numerous references readily acknowledge the work of our colleagues in the scholarly arena. No doubt many others contributed to our thinking, but we were unaware of their input, gained as it was over the years, and are unable to acknowledge it beyond this admission. Yet four individuals—not adequately featured in the footnotes—have made a lasting impression on our lives. They were our first mentors in graduate biblical studies. They not only honed our skills in interpretation, but they also ignited an enduring love for the Bible. Each stressed the need to know not only what the Bible says, but also what the Bible means by what it says. We pray that we can pass on the same mindset to our students. We rededicate this second edition to these mentors, three of whom now reside in the presence of their Lord. So we laud Donald W. Burdick (†), D. A. Carson, David A. Hubbard (†), and A. Berkeley Mickelsen (†). Well might the writer of Hebrews have spoken of this quartet when he admonished:

Remember your leaders, who spoke the word of God to you. Consider the outcome of their way of life and imitate their faith. (Heb 13:7)

Thank you, brothers, for what you have meant to us.

William W. Klein

Craig L. Blomberg

Robert L. Hubbard, Jr.

31 October 2003

INTRODUCTION

Almost daily, the average Christian is challenged to obey God’s Word. How well we sense the urgency of Jesus’ words to that Israelite woman of long ago, Blessed rather are those who hear the word of God and obey it! (Luke 11:28 NRSV). And James’s words ring out in our minds: Do not merely listen to the word, and so deceive yourselves. Do what it says (Jas 1:22). The Psalmist assures us, Your word is a lamp to my feet, a light for my path (Ps 119:105). We believe we can grow in our relationship with God, we can develop into more spiritually-wise disciples, and we can become increasingly useful servants of God—if we will believe and follow God’s instructions in the Bible. How much more effective we could be—how much more Christ-like—if we would make Bible study and application integral parts of our lives. We face the challenge to become biblical Christians: Christians who learn what God’s Word says, and who humbly, obediently, put it into practice. In an era of increasing biblical illiteracy, this appeal becomes ever more urgent.

But how are we to learn what the Bible says? How do we mine its resources? What are we to learn and how are we to respond? Can we know if we have understood the message correctly? Our goal in writing this book is to help answer these questions, to unravel some of the mysteries of biblical interpretation.

Admittedly, it can be daunting to face a voluminous Bible full of alien genealogies, barbaric practices, strange prophecies, and eccentric Epistles. It would be so much simpler if the experts would simply assemble God’s instructions for us in a nice systematic list. But God did not provide a mere list of principles and practices. Dare we reduce the Bible to such a level? However much we might prefer that God’s revelation came in a different form, we bow to his wisdom in giving us the Bible as it stands. We are convinced that when we understand the nature of the Bible and what God has done in providing it, we will see that it cannot be reduced to a list of beliefs to espouse, attitudes to adopt, actions to pursue, nor the corresponding opposites to avoid. In his wisdom, God has given his people the kind of revelation he decided would be best for us. Our task is to understand and respond to what God has communicated in ways that demonstrate our obedience and faithfulness to that revelation. We have to come to terms with the Bible as it is! And that is precisely what we intend to help the reader accomplish.

But in order to execute the task of correct biblical interpretation, we must first understand what biblical interpretation is. Thus, in Part I we define hermeneutics and demonstrate the crucial need for careful and valid hermeneutical principles. To understand how to interpret the Bible today requires an appreciation of our predecessors in the biblical faith. So we investigate the various approaches and techniques people have employed to understand Scripture throughout history. We want to learn from them—appropriating what is valid and valuable while avoiding their mistakes and pitfalls.

In recent years, some biblical scholars and interpreters have issued a call for a radical shift in the focus of interpretation. Several new, and in some cases esoteric, methods have arisen in both literary-critical (e.g., deconstruction) and social-scientific (e.g., feminist hermeneutics) studies. While some readers of this textbook may not add all of these tactics to their arsenals of interpretative methods, they offer some definite assistance to interpreters. In addition, their presence on the modern scene requires us to provide students with some assessment of their procedures and usefulness.

A most valuable legacy of our spiritual ancestors is the biblical canon. We provide insight and perspective on the formation of the Bible. In addition, we will consider the phenomenon of Bible translation and seek to help readers navigate through the maze of competing versions available today.

In Part II we consider first the interpreter—the qualifications and presuppositions that are necessary and appropriate for the task of biblical interpretation. Hermeneutics has long been concerned with unraveling the meaning of the ancient texts. But until recently sufficient attention was not given to those seeking to understand that meaning—to the interpreters themselves. Interpreters are not blank slates or empty sponges; who they are contributes greatly to the entire enterprise of understanding. So beyond qualifications and presuppositions, we investigate the concept of preunderstanding—what interpreters bring with them to the task of interpretation. Having described the interpreter, we will then raise the question of the goal of interpretation—what it is that we seek. Is the goal to determine the meaning the authors intended, the meaning in the texts themselves, or the meaning produced when text and modern interpreter interact? Can we say that a text has (or produces) only one possible meaning, or should we seek different meanings or levels of meaning within it? Or, to change the question, can texts have meanings that their authors intended while containing an additional meaning or meanings placed there by the Holy Spirit to be recovered by subsequent readers? Can we assure that our interpretations are valid? These are foundational questions, and their answers have enormous implications for our task because issues of life and eternity are determined by a proper understanding of God’s message.

In Part III we proceed to establish basic, commonly accepted principles for understanding how literature—both prose and poetry—functions. The Bible is fundamentally a literary document, and we must understand it as such. We survey the various literary, cultural, social, and historical issues involved in interpretation. Since languages function according to specific rules and principles, interpreters must understand these rules in order to study the texts properly. The goal is not to complicate matters, but to achieve better understanding. We aspire to the greatest precision and accuracy in the process of interpretation.

Part IV introduces the reader to the specific kinds of literature (or genres) found in the Bible, and gives an overview of the appropriate methodologies for understanding the meaning conveyed by each. We describe each genre—Law (the Bible’s legal material), OT historical narrative, poetry, prophecy, wisdom literature, OT apocalyptic, Gospels, NT historical narrative (Acts), Epistles, and Apocalypse—and show how the interpreter needs to study each one to comprehend its message fully.

Undoubtedly, readers have a variety of reasons for wanting to study the Bible. Part V seeks to make accessible the practical wealth of the Bible by investigating, briefly, the various ways it ministers to God’s people. Whether they use the Bible to help others (in teaching, preaching, or counseling a friend), or to seek for personal spiritual encouragement, or simply to worship the God of the universe, the Bible has proved its value since its origin. What is more, the Bible serves as the source book for the church’s theology—for its understanding of God’s perspective on life and his will for his people.

In essence, the Bible is God’s written revelation to his people. It records in human words what God has mandated for them. Thus, a significant question for every student of the Bible is: How can we apply the Bible to our lives today? Part V considers this essential question of personal application. This task is not always easy, for the biblical message moves across centuries and cultures. And precisely because the Bible came to people within their own cultures and experiences thousands of years ago, modern Christians are not always sure how literally they should implement what the Bible commands. They are puzzled about how to move from the principles in a passage to appropriate modern application. When we read what God required of the ancient Israelites or the first-century Christians, we puzzle over his expectations for us today. If pork and shrimp were forbidden for God’s people in 1200 BC (Lev 11:7, 10–12), on what basis, if any, can we rescind that prohibition today? If Paul required women in the Corinthian church of AD 57 to wear appropriate head coverings (1 Cor 11:4–6, 13), may twenty-first-century women disregard his instructions? Christians insist on following Jesus’ instructions to his disciples to celebrate the Lord’s Supper: This is my body given for you; do this in remembrance of me (Luke 22:19; emphasis added). Should we not also perform another clear instruction: . . . you also should wash one another’s feet. I have set you an example that you should do as I have done for you (John 13:14–15; italics added)? These are pivotal issues for the Christian who sincerely wants to apply the Bible correctly to his or her life.

To aid biblical interpreters, whether novice or experienced, we have provided an Annotated Bibliography of suggested helps. As carpenters, programmers, or surgeons require tools to do their work, so interpreters need specific tools. Throughout the book we argue for a responsible approach to discerning the meaning of the biblical texts. That approach often requires insights and information accumulated by specialists. In this final section we list those resources we feel interpreters will find most useful in the full range of tasks needed for effective interpretation. The Bibliography is a practical list for students to use in Bible interpretation. For the more technical details and documentation of the approach to biblical interpretation developed in this book, readers can consult the footnotes at appropriate points.

We have a final word to teachers who employ this as a textbook: each chapter was designed to be self-contained in scope. The chapters can be assigned for study in various sequences, for each can stand on its own. This also means there is some minor overlap and repetition in the discussions of a few topics. We usually cross-reference topics to alert readers to locations where an issue receives more detailed discussion.

Part I

THE TASK OF

INTERPRETATION

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THE NEED FOR INTERPRETATION

Making sense of Scripture is an arduous and often puzzling task. We may readily explain what the Bible says, but have more difficulty in agreeing about what it means by what it says. And, often even more troublesome, modern Christians differ wildly on how the Bible’s words should influence their lives today, if at all. Consider some of the difficult tensions we face in this task:

The Bible is God’s Word, yet it has come to us through human means. The commands of God appear to be absolute, yet they are set in such diverse historical contexts that we are hard-pressed to see how they can be universally normative.

The divine message must be clear, yet many passages seem all too ambiguous.

We acknowledge the crucial role of the Holy Spirit, yet scholarship is surely necessary to understand what the Spirit has inspired.

The Scriptures present the message God wants us to hear, but that message is conveyed within a complex literary landscape with varied genres and over a huge span of time.

Proper interpretation requires the interpreter’s personal freedom, yet that freedom comes with considerable risks of bias and distortion. Is there some role for an external, corporate authority?

The objectivity of the biblical message seems essential to some readers, yet on the one hand presuppositions surely inject a degree of subjectivity into the interpretive process, while on the other postmodernity calls the very concept of objectivity into question.¹

Every student of the Bible could add his or her own list of troublesome and perplexing issues. How can we be successful in our attempts to understand the Scriptures correctly? We need a well-thought-out approach to interpreting the Bible. And that is precisely where hermeneutics comes in.

The meaning of this term can be ambiguous in current usage, so we need to explain the sense in which we will use it in this book. Hermeneutics describes the task of explaining the meaning of the Scriptures. The word derives from the Greek verb hermēneuō that means to explain, interpret or to translate, while the noun hermēneia means interpretation or translation. Using the verb, Luke informs us that Jesus explained to the two disciples on the Emmaus road what the Scriptures said about him (Luke 24:27). Paul uses the noun in 1 Corinthians 12:10 to refer to the gift of interpretation of tongues. In essence, then, hermeneutics involves interpreting or explaining. In fields like biblical studies or literature, it refers to the task of explaining the meaning of a piece of writing.²

Hermeneutics describes the principles people use to understand what something means, to comprehend what a message—written, oral, or visual—is endeavoring to communicate.

WHY HERMENEUTICS?

But what does hermeneutics have to do with reading and understanding the Bible? Haven’t God’s people through the millennia read and understood the Scriptures without recourse to hermeneutics? Actually, the answer to this second question is no. For though we might not always be conscious of it, unless certain things are in place we would not be able to comprehend anything.

Think of normal everyday life. We engage in conversations or read a book, and we unconsciously interpret and understand the meanings we hear or read. When we watch a television program, listen to a lecture, or read a blog or an article about a familiar subject in our own culture and language, we interpret intuitively and without consciously thinking of using methods. Though unaware of the process, we employ methods of interpretation that enable us to understand accurately. This explains why normal communication works. If there were no system, understanding would occur only randomly or occasionally, if at all.³

But is reading the Bible like this? Can we understand the Bible correctly merely by reading it? Some people are convinced that we can. One seminary professor tells how a distraught student once interrupted a seminar on principles for understanding the Bible. Fearful that he might have offended the student, the teacher asked if anything was wrong. Mournfully, the student responded, I feel so sorry for you.

Why do you feel sorry for me? The professor was perplexed.

Because, said the student, it is so hard for you to understand the Bible. I just read it and God shows me the meaning.

Does the Holy Spirit tell people what the Bible means? While this approach to biblical interpretation may reflect a commendable confidence in God, it reveals a simplistic (and potentially dangerous) understanding of the illumination of the Holy Spirit and the clarity of Scripture—important issues that we will take up in due course. As we will argue, the role of the Spirit in understanding God’s Word is indispensable. The Spirit convinces God’s people of the truth of the biblical message and then convicts and enables them to live consistently with that truth. However, apart from extraordinarily rare and unusual circumstances, the Spirit does not inform readers of Scripture’s meaning. That is, the Spirit’s help does not replace the need to interpret biblical passages according to the principles of language communication.

Through the centuries, if people have correctly understood God’s Word, it is because they have employed proper principles and methods of interpretation. That does not mean, of course, that they all had formal biblical training. Rather, they were good readers—they used common sense and had enough background to read accurately. Equally, others seriously misunderstood what the Bible meant, sometimes with lamentable results. What this book aspires to do, then, is to uncover and explain what makes a good reader and to provide the principles to enable Bible readers to read accurately while avoiding mistakes.

The need for such principles becomes more obvious when one is in an unfamiliar domain—such as a lecture on astrophysics or with a highly technical legal document. Terms, allusions, and concepts are strange and perhaps incomprehensible. We immediately perceive a need for help in deciphering the message. How are we to make sense of antiquarks, the weak anthropic principle, or neutrinos? Who can tell us how to distinguish a habeas corpus from a corpus delicti? We cannot simply make up our own meanings, or merely ask a random person who might be nearby. We need the help of specialized resources or an expert. Taking a physics class might help in the first situation, while consulting a lawyer would be helpful in the second.⁴

At times understanding even the most straightforward communication is not so clear-cut. For example, to understand a father’s statement to his daughter, You will be home by midnight, won’t you? will probably require decoding various cues beyond the simple meanings of individual words. To determine whether this is an inquiry, an assumption, or a command will require a careful analysis of the entire situation. How much more complicated this task is when one seeks to make sense of an ancient text written by people in centuries past! What does Genesis 1:2 have in mind when it says, Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was all over the surface of the deep . . .? What did Jesus mean when he said, . . . for they make their phylacteries broad and their fringes long (Matt 25:3)? We might kindly ask the distraught student mentioned above, Will the Holy Spirit tell you what phylacteries are, or must you use some source to supply the meaning? The great distances of time and culture between those ancient writers and us require some bridges if we are to gain understanding.

But beyond the meaning of the text itself (what it meant in the original context for authors and recipients), faithful biblical readers also want to know the significance of that text for themselves. They ask, What is this text saying to me and what difference should it make in my life, if any?

If the goal is correct understanding of communication, we need an approach and methods that are appropriate to the task. Hermeneutics provides the means for understanding the Scriptures and for applying that meaning responsibly. To avoid interpretation that is arbitrary, erroneous, or that simply suits personal whim, the reader needs methods and principles for guidance. A deliberate procedure to interpret based on sensible and agreed-upon principles becomes the best guarantee that an interpretation will be accurate. When we consciously set out to discover and employ such principles, we explore hermeneutics—biblical interpretation.⁵ Thus, the basic goal of this book will be to establish, explain, and demonstrate guidelines and methods to guide those who want to understand and apply Scripture correctly.

HERMENEUTICS DEFINED

The Art and Science of Interpretation

Interpretation is not either an art or a science; it is both an art and a science. Every form of communication uses codes of some sort—cues in sounds, spelling, tone of voice, etc.—to convey meaning. We use rules, principles, methods, and tactics to decode messages we hear, see, or read. Yet, human communication cannot be reduced solely to quantifiable and precise rules. No mechanical system of rules will ever help one understand correctly all the implications or nuances in the three words I love you as spoken by a teenage girl to her boyfriend, a husband to his wife of twenty-five years, a mother to her child, or an aging baby boomer to his mint-condition ’57 Chevy. This is where the art of interpretation enters in. Adults may think they understand the words awesome, sweet, or dude⁶ (or any popular teenage word), but without knowing the codes of a specific youth subculture, they may be wide of the mark. Similarly, youth may find words of their grandparents like far out or smashing—words common in their youth—unintelligible.

In light of this, how much more must modern biblical interpreters seek to bridge the linguistic, historical, social, and cultural gaps that exist between the ancient and modern worlds so that they may understand what texts mean? We assume that people communicate in order to be understood, and this includes the authors of the Scriptures. Hermeneutics provides a strategy that will enable us to understand the meaning and significance of what an author or speaker intended to communicate.

Are we presuming that there is only one possible meaning of a text or utterance and that our goal is to understand the author’s intention in writing that text? Alas, an answer to this question is not so simple. Perhaps, given a specific text, we must ask whether it has only one correct meaning or whether it may accommodate several or many possible meanings (perhaps at different levels). On one end of the spectrum, some say that the only correct meaning of a text is that single meaning the original author intended it to have.⁷ On the other end stand those who argue that meaning is a function of readers, not authors, and that any text’s meaning depends upon the readers’ perception of it.⁸ Readers, they say, actually create the meaning of a text in the process of reading it. Between the two poles stand other options. Perhaps meaning resides independently in the texts themselves, regardless of what the author meant or of what later readers understand from them. Or perhaps meaning results from some dynamic, complex dialogue between a reader and a text. These issues are crucial because our definition of the task of hermeneutics will depend on our answer to where meaning resides—in the author’s mind, in the text, in the mind of the reader, or in some combination of these. We will return to these questions in the chapters that follow.

The Role of the Interpreter

What role does the interpreter play in the hermeneutical process? We must realize that just as the biblical text arose within historical, personal processes and circumstances, so interpreters are people in the midst of their personal circumstances and situations. For example, the phrase white as snow makes perfect sense to a resident of Colorado where we live, though it may be rather inconsequential. For skiers or snowboarders, details about the nature of the snow on wintry slopes are more important. In contrast, the phrase will be completely incomprehensible to a tribesman from Kalimantan who has no idea what snow is, much less its color. Then the resident of Chicago will have another perspective, wistfully recalling what used to be white while grumbling about the dirty, rutted, frozen snow that impedes the commute to work.

In other words, people understand (or misunderstand) white as snow based on what they already know or have experienced. Does this mean that because we live in an age and location far removed from people of the Bible we are doomed to misunderstand its message? No, but we need approaches and tools that will guide us to interpret it as accurately as possible—that is, to become better readers. But we also need to take into account the presuppositions and preunderstandings we bring to the task of interpretation. To fail to realize what interpreters bring to the task of Bible reading opens them to distortion and misunderstanding.

Thus, while hermeneutics must give attention to the ancient text and the conditions that produced it, responsible interpretation cannot ignore the circumstances and the understanding of those who attempt to explain the Scriptures today. No one interprets in a vacuum; everyone has presuppositions and preunderstandings. Dr. Basil Jackson, a leading Christian psychiatrist, learned this hermeneutical lesson during his youth when a Plymouth Brethren elder in Ireland told him, Wonderful things in the Bible I see, most of them put there by you and me.⁹ This is truer than we wish it to be.

Of course, one cannot interpret without some preunderstanding of the subject.¹⁰ Yet no one should approach biblical interpretation assuming that their current preunderstanding is sufficient to guide them. It is understandable for a sincere Christian to affirm, "the Bible was written for me," but that does not mean that it was written to her or him. In effect we are reading someone else’s mail! The authors and the original recipients lived long ago. If we seek to understand the Bible strictly through the lenses of our own experiences, we run the risk of misunderstanding the message. One extreme example was reported by a Christian counselor. A woman explained to her therapist that God had told her to divorce her husband and marry another man (with whom she was romantically involved). She cited Paul’s command in Ephesians 4:24 (KJV), Put on the new man, as the key to her divine guidance. As humorous as this sounds, she was absolutely serious.¹¹ Although modern translations clarify that Paul was instructing believers to replace their sinful lifestyle with a Christian one, this woman, preoccupied with her marital problems, read her own meaning into the passage. Yet far less obvious examples of this error occur regularly when people read or teach the Bible. We want to show why this approach is wrong.

However, an accurate analysis of the Bible is not simply a matter of applying with scrupulous honesty and accuracy certain precise techniques. Things are not so simple. When we try to understand each other’s communication, scientific precision seems to elude our grasp. In fact, even the so-called objective or hard-science researchers recognize the influence of values. How a researcher frames a question may determine the nature of the results that emerge. To raise a controversial question: Is there some objective way to answer the question of when human life begins? Values (preunderstandings) play a huge role in the answers. What one brings to the question colors one’s answer. David Tracy observes, Former claims for a value-free technology and a history-free science have collapsed. The hermeneutical character of science has now been strongly affirmed. Even in science, we must interpret in order to understand.¹²

No one comes to the task of understanding as an objective observer. All interpreters bring their own presuppositions and agendas, and these affect the ways they understand as well as the conclusions they draw.¹³ In addition, the writer or speaker whom the interpreter wishes to understand also operates with a set of presuppositions. We humans mediate all our understanding through a grid of personal history and bias. Our prior experiences and knowledge—our total background—shape what we perceive and how we understand. So can we study Scripture texts objectively and accurately? Though we will argue that objective certainty in interpretation will always elude our grasp, we propose a critical hermeneutical approach that will provide standards and tactics to guide us in navigating through the variable and subjective human factors to enable us to arrive at the most likely understanding of the biblical texts’ meaning.

The Meaning of the Message

At this point, it will help to explain our approach to language by using some of the categories of speech act theory. Consider how any type of oral or written communication involves three elements:

Locution. This refers to what is spoken or written: the words, sentences, in a given statement or discourse. A simple example consists of Jesus’s assertion, You are the light of the world (Matt 5:14).

Illocution. This identifies the intention the speaker or writer has by using those specific words. What do the words actually accomplish? What energy does the author employ? What content does the author convey? This focuses what the author was seeking to do to or for the readers. We might say that Jesus intended to encourage his disciples to brighten up their world by doing good deeds (Matt 5:16). Or perhaps he wanted to inform them of their identity as his disciples: they are to be lights in a world characterized by darkness.

Perlocution. This refers to what the speaker or writer envisioned the outcome or results to be for the listener or reader. Probably Jesus intended that the disciples engage in all manner of good works that show their commitment to God’s kingdom priorities. The world would be a brighter place because of their deeds. This may be Jesus’ intended outcome. Of course, we can often never know to what extent an outcome was achieved.¹⁴

All this is related to but separate from the additional factors of the meaning of what is said (what do the words light and world and the phrase light of the world mean?), how a given hearer or reader actually understands the message, and how he or she responds, if at all. All these combine to determine meaning.¹⁵ Authors’ words may convey more than they intended, but the point is that authors normally determine what they will say, how they will encode their message to accomplish their intention, and what results they hope to achieve.

When we seek to understand the meaning of a biblical text, we possess only the words on a page. The author is no longer available to explain what was meant. The first hearers or readers remain equally inaccessible, so we cannot ask them to tell us how they understood the message. Only by means of the written text itself (the locution) in its context can we hope to reconstruct the meaning of the utterance (considering both illocution and perlocution) the author most likely intended. Recognizing these speech act distinctions remind us that we must consider more than only the words on the page (locution) and what they mean. Any appraisal of meaning must take into consideration this complex interplay of text, author, and audience.

The Text

How can the utterance or text itself help in discovering the message the author intended to convey or the message the hearers understood? Clearly, one basic factor is to determine the meanings of the terms that are used. We must adopt an approach to understanding the meaning of words that considers precisely their referential, denotative, connotative, and contextual meanings.

Briefly, referential meaning specifies what some words or terms refer to. In other words, one meaning of the word tree is (or refers to) a large woody and leafy plant growing outside that bears apples in the fall. Denotative and connotative meanings speak of complementary aspects of a word’s meaning. Words may denote a specific meaning. A biologist could provide a specific, scientific definition of tree that would represent its denotative meaning. But in a specific instance the word tree might take on special meanings or connotations, as when Peter observes that Jesus died on a tree (1 Pet 2:24; ESV, NET, NASB). In that instance the term has a unique significance for Christians for whom tree graphically recalls that Jesus was crucified. Connotations, then, include a word’s emotional overtones—the positive or negative associations it conjures up beyond what the word strictly denotes. The hanging tree used for executing criminals also conveys connotative meaning—a sad, sober feeling for crimes, their perpetrators, and their victims. In these uses, tree means more than the biologist’s explanation, just as that scientific explanation pales before the view of a spreading chestnut tree under which the village smithy stands.¹⁷ Peter’s use also illustrates contextual meaning, for when we read his words we quickly conclude that he does not refer to a literal tree at all. In the context, tree means cross, which is how the NIV and NRSV, among others, render the word.¹⁸

Words do not occur in isolation in a text. All languages present their words in a system of grammatical and literary structures—sentences, paragraphs, poems, discourses, and whole books. We must understand how the biblical languages function if we are to understand what the writers meant by their words. A crucial dimension involved in understanding an utterance is the specific literary genre and writing style the author employed to convey his or her message. We interpret the words in a poem differently from those in a letter or a story. We expect ambiguity or figures of speech to convey a meaning in poetry that differs from the more concrete sense of words in a historical narrative.

In fact, much recent study has focused upon the literary dimensions of the Bible, of both individual passages and whole books, and any responsible procedure to interpret Scripture must address this dimension.¹⁹ When we receive a business letter in the mail, we expect it to follow a fairly standard format. For the most part, the biblical writers also used and adapted literary forms and conventions that were standard when they wrote. Thus, in order to understand the books of the Bible as literary documents and to appreciate the various dimensions—both cognitive and aesthetic—of what we read in the Scriptures, we need to employ the insights and methods of literary criticism. The use of literary-critical (and historical) methods to understand the biblical writings is crucial. The uniqueness of Scripture pertains to its content as God’s revelation and to the process God employed to convey his truth through human instruments. That process included the use of specific and varying literary features. Those literary features are culturally based in the ancient world and require our