Zondervan Handbook to the Bible: Fifth Edition

By Zondervan

Continuously in print since 1973, this fifth edition of the classic Zondervan Handbook to the Bible has been updated with new imagery. From the history and design of the temple in Jerusalem to God's relationship with the universe, you'll find it here. The land, culture, battles, feast days, heroes, and villains of Scripture come alive through spectacular color-filled articles and images of meticulous clarity and detail.

Special features include:

• A four color guide to all the books of the Bible
• Over 120 articles by an international team of experts
• More than 700 color photographs, many of them new
• 68 maps and 20 charts

Complete with a comprehensive "Rapid Fact-Finder to the Bible" section, the Zondervan Handbook to the Bible remains the best book to have next to your Bible.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Zondervan
• Release date: Jun 18, 2019
• ISBN: 9780310537953

Book preview

Authors and Contributors

David and Pat Alexander, editors of the original Handbook; until 1994 respectively Publishing Director and Editorial Director of Lion Publishing, Oxford:

All photographs (except those listed in Acknowledgments) especially taken by David Alexander

Outline-guide to the Bible in Parts 2 and 3, with notes and articles not otherwise attributed, by Pat Alexander

The Rev. Prof. Craig Bartholomew, H. Evan Runner Professor of Religion, Redeemer University College, Ancaster, Canada:

The text and the message

The Rev. David Barton, former Head of Advisory Services, Diocese of Oxford Schools Department; Warden, Sisters of the Love of God, Fairacres, Oxford:

Jacob, Joseph, David, Portrait of Jeremiah

Dr Richard Bauckham, Senior Scholar, Ridley Hall, Cambridge and former Emeritus Professor of New Testament Studies, University of St Andrews:

A story through women’s eyes (Ruth), Women’s perspectives in the Gospels, Understanding Revelation

Professor R.J. Berry, Emeritus Professor of Genetics at University College, London:

A geneticist comments (on the virgin birth)

Dr John Bimson, former Tutor in Old Testament, Trinity College, Bristol; author of The World of the Old Testament and (When) Did it Happen? New Contexts for Old Testament History:

Bringing the past to life, Nomadic life, Settled life The late E.M. Blaiklock, sometime Emeritus Professor of Classics, University of Auckland, New Zealand:

The Herod family, A historian looks at the New Testament

The Rev. Prof. Gerald Bray, Research Professor of Divinity, Beeson Divinity School, Samford University, USA:

Interpreting the Bible down the ages

The Rev. Canon Prof. Richard A. Burridge, Dean of King’s College London and Professor of Biblical Interpretation; author of What are the Gospels?, Four Gospels, One Jesus?, John in the People’s Bible Commentary series and Imitating Jesus: An Inclusive Approach to New Testament Ethics Today:

Studying the Gospels

The Rev. Canon Dr G. Mike Butterworth, former priest-in-charge of Broughton Community Church and Director of Interactive Christian Extension Studies; specialist in Old Testament history and Prophets:

The Prophets

The late George Cansdale, sometime Superintendent, Zoological Society of London:

The quail, Fishing in Lake Galilee

The Rev. Colin Chapman, Lead Faculty for MENA Islam, and former Lecturer in Islamic Studies, Near East School of Theology, Beirut; writer on the Arab-Israeli conflict and Christian-Muslim relations; author of Whose Promised Land? and Whose Holy City?:

The promised land, ‘Holy War’

Rabbi Prof. Dan Cohn-Sherbok, Professor Emeritus of Judaism, University of Wales, visiting Professor at St Mary’s University College, London, and Honorary Professor at Aberystwyth University:

The Hebrew Bible

The Rev. A.E. Cundall, former Principal, Bible College of Victoria, Australia; author of various books and studies related to the Old Testament:

Unravelling the chronology of the kings

Dr Katharine Dell, Reader in Old Testament Literature and Theology, University of Cambridge; Fellow and Director of Studies in Theology and Religious Studies at St Catharine’s College; specialist in Proverbs, Job and wisdom literature generally:

Understanding Job, Wisdom in Proverbs and Job

Dr Mark Elliott, Reader in Church History, University of St Andrews:

with Dr Stephen Travis: An approved list – the ‘canon’ of Scripture, Deuterocanonical books

Dr Grace I. Emmerson, formerly of the Department of Theology, University of Birmingham and of the Open Theological College, University of Gloucestershire, specializing in Hebrew and Old Testament:

Understanding Hosea

Mary J. Evans, former Vice-Principal, London School of Theology, and former Academic Dean at the Ethiopian Graduate School of Theology, Addis Ababa:

Prophets and prophecy

The Rev. David Field, former Vice-Principal, Oak Hill Theological College, London:

Jesus and the kingdom of God

The late Rev. Dr R.T. (Dick) France, former Principal of Wycliffe Hall, Oxford; New Testament scholar and writer:

Jewish religion in New Testament times, Jesus and the Old Testament, ‘God with us’ – the incarnation, The Old Testament in the New Testament, The Jewish Dispersion

Frances Fuller, writer, editor and former Director of Baptist Publications and Dar Manhal al-Hayat, Beirut; resident for many years in the Middle East:

Sarah, Hagar, Portrait of Ruth, Hannah, Portrait of Esther, Mary, Martha and Mary, Portrait of Mary Magdalene

Prof. David Gill, Professor of Archaeological Heritage and Director of Heritage Futures, University of Suffolk:

The Roman province of Judea, The city of Athens, Roman rule, Greek culture, The city of Rome, The city of Corinth

Dr John Goldingay, David Allan Hubbard Professor of Old Testament, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California; author of the 17-volume Old Testament for Everyone series Do We Need the New Testament? Letting the Old Testament Speak for Itself:

Keys to understanding (the Bible)

Paula Gooder, freelance writer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Theologian in Residence for the Bible Society, visiting lecturer at King’s College London, and Honorary Canon Theologian at Birmingham and Guildford Cathedrals; specialist studies: evidence for belief in Jewish mysticism in the New Testament, feminist theology, biblical interpretation:

Understanding Colossians

The Rev. Canon Dr Michael Green, New Testament scholar, author and lecturer; former Chaplain for the Oxford Centre for Christian Apologetics and currently Honorary Fellow at Wycliffe Hall, Oxford:

‘Good News!’–from the first Christians, Spiritual gifts

The late Rev. Geoffrey W. Grogan, former Principal, Bible Training Institute, Glasgow:

The Holy Spirit in Acts

Dr P. Deryn Guest, Senior Lecturer in Biblical Hermeneutics, Department of Theology and Religion, University of Birmingham:

Understanding Judges

Michele Guinness, writer, broadcaster and speaker – a Jewish Christian:

Passover and the Last Supper

The late Dr Donald Guthrie, sometime Vice-Principal, London Bible College:

The Letters (revised by The Rev. Dr Stephen Motyer)

Richard S. Hess, Earl S. Kalland Professor of Old Testament and Semitic Languages, Denver Seminary, Colorado; specialist in the Bible and the ancient Near East; author of Studies in the Personal Names of Genesis 1 – 11:

Personal names in Genesis 1 – 11

Professor Sir Colin Humphreys, Goldsmiths’ Professor of Materials Science, Cambridge University:

The star of Bethlehem, The census

Dr David Instone-Brewer, Senior Research Fellow in Rabbinics and the New Testament, Tyndale House, Cambridge:

Jesus and money, Jesus and the cities, Jesus and women

The Rev. Dr Philip Jenson, Lecturer in Old Testament & Biblical Theology, Ridley Hall, Cambridge:

A way of life – The Ten Commandments, Old Testament priesthood

Dr Philip Johnston, Senior Tutor in Old Testament, Hughes Hall, Cambridge:

The Psalms in their setting, Old Testament views of the afterlife

The late F.D. Kidner, sometime Warden of Tyndale House and Library for Biblical Research, Cambridge:

Poetry and Wisdom

Dr K.A. Kitchen, Personal and Brunner Professor Emeritus of Egyptology and Honorary Research Fellow, School of Archaeology, Classics and Egyptology, University of Liverpool:

Egypt

Dr Nobuyoshi Kiuchi, Associate Professor of Old Testament, Tokyo Christian University:

Sacrifice

Dr Todd E. Klutz, Senior Lecturer in New Testament Studies, University of Manchester:

Magic in the Old Testament

J. Nelson Kraybill, President, Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary, Elkhart, Indiana; author of Apocalypse and Allegiance: Worship, Politics, and Devotion in the Book of Revelation:

Emperor worship and Revelation

Dr Melba Padilla Maggay, President of Micah Global:

Cultural perspectives – East and West

The late Dr I. Howard Marshall, former Emeritus Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Aberdeen, and former Chair of the Tyndale Fellowship for Biblical and Theological Research:

The Gospels and Jesus Christ, The New Testament miracles

The Rev. Professor Andrew McGowan, Minister, Inverness East Church and UHI Professor of Theology:

The twelve disciples of Jesus

Alan R. Millard, Professor Emeritus of Hebrew and Ancient Semitic Languages, and Honorary Senior Fellow (Ancient Near East), University of Liverpool; Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and international lecturer on biblical archaeology:

The Old Testament and the ancient Near East, Creation stories, Flood stories, Abraham, Where were Sodom and Gomorrah?, Moses, Cities of the conquest, Canaanites and Philistines, The lost Ark, Solomon’s Temple and its successors, The scribe, The Assyrians, The Babylonians, The Persians

The late Evelyn Miranda-Feliciano, writer and sometime lecturer, Institute for Studies in Asian Church and Culture, Manila, Philippines:

Justice and the poor

The late Rev. J.A. Motyer, former Principal at Trinity College, Bristol and former Lecturer in Old Testament:

The names of God, The significance of the Tabernacle, The Prophets (with Dr Mike Butterworth)

The Rev. Dr Steve Motyer, Lecturer in New Testament and Hermeneutics, London School of Theology:

The Letters, Paul

Rt Rev. Dr Michael Nazir-Ali, formerly Bishop of Rochester, currently President of the Oxford Centre for Training, Research, Advocacy and Dialogue:

The Qur’an and the Bible

The Rev. Prof. Stephen Noll, former Vice-Chancellor, Uganda Christian University, Mukono, Uganda; author of Angels of Light, Powers of Darkness:

Angels in the Bible

The Rev. Dr Ian Paul, Associate Minister, St Nic’s, Nottingham and Honorary Assistant Professor, University of Nottingham:

Mary Magdalene – fact and fiction

Meic Pearse, Professor of History, Houghton College, Houghton, USA:

Our world – their world

The Rev. Dr John Polkinghorne, Anglican priest and former Professor of Mathematical Physics, University of Cambridge; Fellow of the Royal Society:

A scientist looks at the Bible

Claire Powell, former Tutor in New Testament, lecturing in New Testament Greek, Christology, Hermeneutics and Gender at All Nations Christian College, Ware, Herts:

Women of faith, The Bible through women’s eyes

Professor Sir Ghillean Prance, former Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England:

People as God’s caretakers

Dr Vinoth Ramachandra, Secretary for Dialogue and Social Engagement (Asia) for the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students; author, most recently, of Subverting Global Myths:

Jesus in a plural society

Dr Harold Rowdon, former Lecturer and Resident Tutor, London Bible College (now London School of Theology):

Roman soldiers in the New Testament, Pilate

The Very Rev. J.A. Simpson, former Dean of Canterbury:

The virgin birth

The Rev. Vera Sinton, former Tutor in Ethics and Pastoral Theology, Wycliffe Hall, Oxford:

Sexual issues in the church at Corinth

The late Rt Rev. John B. Taylor, Old Testament scholar and former Bishop of St Albans:

Introducing the Old Testament, The Five Books, Israel’s History

The Ven. Dr Joy Tetley, former Archdeacon of Worcester; biblical theologian, writer and teacher:

Understanding Hebrews

Dr Stephen Travis, visiting lecturer and former Principal of St John’s College, Nottingham:

Reading the Bible; with Dr Mark Elliott: An approved list – the ‘canon’ of Scripture, Deuterocanonical books

Steve Turner, poet and writer:

A poet looks at Psalms

The Rev. Dr Peter Walker, Professor of Biblical Studies, Trinity School for Ministry, Ambridge, USA; author of Jesus and the Holy City and In the Steps of Jesus:

Jerusalem in New Testament times

The Rev. Dr Steve Walton, Professorial Research Fellow in New Testament, St Mary’s University, Twickenham; specialist on Luke-Acts:

What is the Bible?, Spreading the word – the task of translation

Walter Wangerin Jr, teacher on literature and creative writing; theologian and writer; author of The Book of God: The Bible As A Novel:

The Bible as story

The Rt Rev. Dr Jo Bailey Wells, Bishop of Dorking, former Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury:

Storykeepers – the oral tradition, The scribes, Editors at work

Dr Gordon Wenham, Emeritus Professor at the University of Gloucestershire; Lecturer at Trinity College, Bristol:

Covenants and ancient Near Eastern treaties

The Rev. Canon David Wheaton, former Canon Emeritus of St Alban’s Cathedral and former Principal of Oak Hill Theological College, London, and Honorary Chaplain to Her Majesty The Queen:

Jesus’ resurrection

The Rev. Prof. David Wilkinson, Principal of St John’s College and Professor in the Department of Theology and Religion, Durham University; theoretical astrophysicist and Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society; author of God, Time and Stephen Hawking and Christian Eschatology and the Physical Universe:

God and the universe

Hugh G.M. Williamson, Emeritus Regius Professor of Hebrew, University of Oxford:

Understanding Isaiah

Robert Willoughby, Lecturer in New Testament, London School of Theology; specialist in the Gospels and political theology:

The peace of God, Love

1

INTRODUCING THE BIBLE

STARTING WITH THE BIBLE

The books of the Bible

What is the Bible?

Reading the Bible

THE BIBLE IN ITS SETTING

Making connections – the Bible and world history

The Bible in its time

Bringing the past to life

The land of Israel

Animals and birds

Trees and plants

Israel’s calendar

UNDERSTANDING THE BIBLE

Keys to understanding

Understanding the Bible

The Bible as story

Interpreting the Bible down the ages

The text and the message

PASSING ON THE STORY

Storykeepers – the oral tradition

The scribes

Editors at work

The Hebrew Bible

An approved list – the ‘canon’ of Scripture

Spreading the word – the task of translation

THE BIBLE TODAY

Cultural perspectives – East and West

Jesus in a plural society

The Qur’an and the Bible

The Bible through women’s eyes

A scientist looks at the Bible

Our world – their world

‘Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.’ Psalm 119:105

‘Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.’

Psalm 119:105

STARTING WITH THE BIBLE

The books of the Bible

OLD TESTAMENT (39 books)

THE FIVE BOOKS

Genesis

Exodus

Leviticus

Numbers

Deuteronomy

ISRAEL’S HISTORY

Joshua

Judges

Ruth

1 & 2 Samuel

1 & 2 Kings

1 & 2 Chronicles

Ezra

Nehemiah

Esther

POETRY AND WISDOM

Job

Psalms

Proverbs

Ecclesiastes

Song of Solomon

THE PROPHETS

Isaiah

Jeremiah

Lamentations

Ezekiel

Daniel

12 ‘minor prophets’: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi

These books contain stories of the creation of the world, the great flood and the founding fathers (and mothers!) of the nation of Israel (Genesis); enslavement in Egypt and the exodus (Exodus); and 40 years spent wandering the Sinai ‘wilderness’ (Numbers; Deuteronomy).

They also record the gift of God’s law for his people summed up in the Ten Commandments (Exodus; Deuteronomy) and detailed regulations for sacrifice and worship, centred on the Tabernacle (God’s special Tent) (Exodus; Leviticus).

Horus, symbolized by this eye, was one of the gods of Egypt, where the Israelites were enslaved.

Horus, symbolized by this eye, was one of the gods of Egypt, where the Israelites were enslaved.

Starting with the conquest of the land God had promised to his people (Joshua), these books continue the story of the nation, its heroes and those who failed the nation by leading them astray from God. The period of rule by ‘judges’ (Gideon, Samson and the rest) ends with Samuel, Israel’s king-maker. After kings Saul, David, and Solomon who built a Temple for God in Jerusalem (1 and 2 Samuel; 1 Kings), ten northern tribes break away to form the kingdom of Israel, while David’s line continues in Judah. The fall of Samaria to Assyria marks the end of Israel. But a remnant from Judah survives the destruction of Jerusalem and exile to Babylon, returning home. Renewing their obedience to God’s law, they rebuild the Temple and city walls (Ezra; Nehemiah).

The ram’s horn shofar was blown to call the Israelites to war.

The ram’s horn shofar was blown to call the Israelites to war.

These books contain most of the Bible’s poetry, and the ‘wisdom’ (much of it in the form of proverbs: Proverbs, Ecclesiastes) which was particularly popular in the ancient Near East around the time of King Solomon. Job is a poetic drama about suffering. The Psalms are Israel’s hymnbook. The Song of Solomon is lyric love-poetry.

God’s people often deserted him for other gods. This is a figure of the Canaanite Baal.

God’s people often deserted him for other gods. This is a figure of the Canaanite Baal.

The prophets brought God’s word to his people: warning of judgment (when they were straying from God and breaking his laws) and encouraging with hope and promises (when times were bleak). Most lived in the 8th and 7th centuries BC, when the nation was under threat, first from the Assyrians, then from the Babylonians. Amos was one who spoke out for justice on behalf of the poor. A few belong to the time of the return from exile. A number of prophecies (the best-known are in Isaiah) look forward to a coming ‘Messiah’, whom God will send to set his people free and to rule in peace and justice.

DEUTEROCANONICAL BOOKS/APOCRYPHA

Tobit

Judith

Additions to Esther

Wisdom of Solomon

Ecclesiasticus

Baruch

1 & 2 Esdras

Letter of Jeremiah

Prayer of Azariah/Song of the three Jews

Susanna

Bel and the Dragon

1, 2, 3 & 4 Maccabees

Prayer of Manasseh

Much of this additional material, included in Roman Catholic and Common Version Bibles but not generally in Protestant ones, comes from the Greek (Septuagint) translation of the Hebrew Bible. Maccabees recounts the Jewish struggle for independence in the time ‘between the Testaments’. See further, ‘Deuterocanonical books’, p.515.

A statuette of Artemis (Diana) of Ephesus, the city where Paul’s teaching caused a riot.

A statuette of Artemis (Diana) of Ephesus, the city where Paul’s teaching caused a riot.

Frankincense was one of the gifts the wise men brought to the infant Jesus.

Frankincense was one of the gifts the wise men brought to the infant Jesus.

The earliest surviving fragment of John’s Gospel dates from AD 125-150.

The earliest surviving fragment of John’s Gospel dates from AD 125-150.

Judea was under Roman military rule in New Testament times.

Judea was under Roman military rule in New Testament times.

Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor who issued this coin, gave his consent to Jesus’ crucifixion.

Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor who issued this coin, gave his consent to Jesus’ crucifixion.

Pens, ink and pencase from the New Testament period.

Pens, ink and pencase from the New Testament period.

Codex Sinaiticus, dating from the 4th century AD, contains the whole New Testament.

Codex Sinaiticus, dating from the 4th century AD, contains the whole New Testament.

NEW TESTAMENT (27 books)

THE GOSPELS AND ACTS

Matthew

Mark

Luke

John

Acts

THE LETTERS AND REVELATION

Romans

1 & 2 Corinthians

Galatians

Ephesians

Philippians

Colossians

1 & 2 Thessalonians

1 & 2 Timothy

Titus

Philemon

Hebrews

James

1 & 2 Peter

1, 2 & 3 John

Jude

Revelation

The four Gospels record the life of Jesus, majoring on his three years as a travelling teacher and healer, and the final week when he was crucified. His resurrection is seen as confirming his claim to be the promised Messiah/‘Son of God’. All draw on the eye-witness evidence of his closest followers; each writer has his own particular purpose in telling the story.

Acts is the sequel to Luke’s Gospel, the story of how the first Christians, particularly Peter and the convert, Paul, spread the ‘good news’ of Jesus in the Jewish and Gentile worlds, as far as Rome itself.

The first 13 of these letters – written to newly-formed ‘young churches’ – deal with particular situations, questions the Christians were raising, and the needs of leaders. All are under the name of Paul, the ‘apostle to the Gentiles’, whose dramatic conversion is recorded in Acts.

Hebrews (more of a sermon than a letter) is anonymous.

The other, ‘general’ letters, speak to wider groups of Christians.

Revelation, although a circular letter, is the only New Testament example of ‘apocalyptic’ writing. Addressed to persecuted Christians, it reassures them that God’s purposes are being and will be carried out, until history itself is wound up, evil is finally destroyed, and God’s people enjoy his presence for ever in ‘a new heaven and a new earth’.

What is the Bible?

Steve Walton

For many people the Bible is an unknown book.

What does it contain?

What is it all about?

It is helpful to see the ‘big picture’ of what the Bible is about, so that we don’t get lost in the detail.

Two ways of looking at the Bible are particularly useful:

seeing it as a story

and hearing it as a witness.

The big story

The Bible is a superb story-book, full of exciting tales well told. But it is more than just a collection of stories – there is one big story told by the whole collection of individual stories.

At the centre of the big story is God and what he is doing with the world and the human race.

The Bible begins with God creating the heavens and the earth, and tells the story of his dealings with humankind through to the day, yet to come, when he will wrap history up, and war, disease, death and pain will be no more. This big story has six key parts.

1. Creation

God brought the universe into being out of nothing, by simply speaking. Genesis 1 records six occasions when God spoke and adds, ‘And it was so.’

God was pleased with the universe he had created, so that he called it ‘very good’ (Genesis 1:31). He placed people in his world to care for it and bring out its full potential, giving them responsibility for the animals, birds, trees and plants.

2. ‘Fall’

God gave to the first people freedom to explore the garden in which he had placed them, but forbade them to eat the fruit from one particular tree (Genesis 2:15-17). Pressed by a talking serpent (the embodiment of evil), they chose not to do as God wished (Genesis 3:1-7), and God responded by ejecting them from the garden (Genesis 3:22-24).

This story (often called the ‘fall’ of humankind) is vital for understanding much of the Bible, for it explains that the human race is out of relationship with God – and the whole of creation has been affected by that break of relationship.

3. Israel

Next comes the time of Israel. God chose one man, and his descendants after him, to be the means of undoing the damage which human rebellion against God had produced – a man called Abra(ha)m living in the city of Ur.

God gave Abraham a threefold promise:

a family to follow after him

a land which God would give to his descendants

and that through Abraham’s family God would do good to all humanity (Genesis 12:1-3).

God’s intention was that the whole world would be ‘blessed’ through the nation of Israel (Abraham’s family).

Having chosen this nation, God guarded and cared for them.

They became slaves in Egypt, but God acted to deliver them through Moses, bringing them out of Egypt, through a 40-year wandering around the deserts of the Sinai Peninsula, and into the land where Abraham had lived before them.

This mighty act, called the exodus, became a defining moment for the nation of Israel and, ever afterwards, they looked back on it as the time when God saved them and adopted them as his own. To this day, Jewish people celebrate the exodus in the annual Passover festival.

While they were in the desert, God did something else for them which was to be central to the life of the nation: he gave them his law. The nation was his because of his kindness in taking them out of Egypt: hence the ‘Ten Commandments’, a summary of the heart of the law, begin:

‘I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery’ (Exodus 20:2).

The commandments then go on to speak of how God’s people are to live (Exodus 20:3-17).

But the people were unable to live consistently as God wanted, and so another crucial part of the law was the sacrificial system.

When the people failed to keep the law, God provided a way to ‘cover’ their failure and restore the relationship with him which had been broken. This was by killing an animal in the place of the one who broke the law. The guilty person laid a hand on the head of the animal, to show it was being killed for them, so that God would overlook their law-breaking.

This was costly, for animals were a major measure of wealth in ancient rural society. In later times the sacrifices were offered in the Temple in Jerusalem, the capital city of the nation.

The life of Israel went on through many ups and downs over more than 1,000 years.

The nation divided after the death of King Solomon, and the northern half of the kingdom (Israel) fell to the Assyrians in the 8th century BC, because they compromised their belief and trust in God by taking up with other faiths.

The people of the southern kingdom (Judah) were taken into exile in Babylon about 150 years later, for similar reasons.

But God wasn’t finished with his people. Amazingly he restored the people of Judah to their own land about a half-century later. Prophets – who spoke from God to the people – interpreted this homecoming as a ‘new exodus’, like the escape from Egypt in the time of Moses (see, for example, Isaiah 40:3-5; 43:1-7). The prophets had also announced a coming deliverer, whom God would send to free his people, a person the Jews called ‘Messiah’. Different groups of Jews had different beliefs about the Messiah, but all looked forward to him bringing God’s rule of justice.

4. Jesus

The prophets promised more than just restoration to the land. They spoke of other good things which God would do for his people, including freedom to worship and live as God’s people, and the chance to grow old without fear. That made it doubly hard when the people found themselves prisoners in their own land and oppressed by pagan political powers. In the 1st century AD they saw themselves as still in exile, still being punished by God, even though they were physically back in the land. The Romans governed them and they were not free to live in the way the people of God were called to live. But the key stories which defined them as a people were stories of God acting to rescue them – he had done it in the exodus and in bringing them back from Babylon, and so they believed God would do it again.

Into this scene stepped Jesus, a Jewish teacher and healer who spoke of God’s ‘kingdom’ – affirming that God was still in charge, in spite of the fact that his people were suffering and oppressed.

For three years Jesus taught, healed and freed people from oppressive forces, announcing that God’s power could be seen in what he was doing and saying (Luke 11:16-20).

Jesus cared for the poor and outcasts of society – he would even help the despised aliens who came to him (e.g. Matthew 8:5-13). Jesus saw himself as offering renewal to the nation, bringing news of God’s forgiving love. He spoke of the Temple in ways which suggested that it would be destroyed and replaced in some sense by himself (John 2:18-22; Mark 13:1-2). In claiming this, Jesus was presenting himself as having a unique relationship with God.

This claim was blasphemy to the ears of the Jewish leaders – the final straw to those who had invested their lives in the Temple. Many were also collaborating with the Roman rulers and did not want that stability threatened by Jesus.

That led to a plot to put Jesus to death (John 11:47-53). Amazingly, Jesus did not resist this. He seemed to know what was going on and spoke of it in coded terms (Mark 12:1-12). More than that, Jesus saw his coming death as achieving the reality to which the sacrifices had pointed: forgiveness and renewal for the people.

On the night he was arrested and tried he spent time with his friends, celebrating the Passover meal that commemorated the exodus from Egypt. Jesus gave that meal a new significance. He interpreted the bread and wine of the meal as symbols of his body and blood, given up in death (Luke 22:14-20).

Shortly afterwards Jesus was arrested, tried and condemned to death by the Jewish leaders, and then by the Romans (for the Jews could not carry out a death sentence in those days). He was executed by being hung on a wooden cross. Darkness covered the land while he hung there. Jesus died.

Within three days his followers were totally amazed and overjoyed to see him alive again: death had not been able to defeat him. He was the same Jesus they had known for three years, but somehow more alive than ever before. He was truly the Messiah!

5. Christ’s followers

After Jesus rose from the dead he gave his followers the responsibility of telling others about him. Before he left them to return to God his Father, he promised them the power to carry out this huge task, a personal power he called the Holy Spirit.

At the Jewish festival of Pentecost, shortly afterwards, the small group of Jesus’ followers were overwhelmed by a powerful wind and given the ability to speak new languages, so that a large crowd was attracted to hear them speak about Jesus. This was the power which would enable them to spread the message!

This they did, rapidly. In countries all around the Mediterranean Sea they spoke of the living Jesus – to be worshipped with Father God, and offering forgiveness and new life to those who followed him. Small groups of Christians began to form, initially amongst Jewish people, but later also including non-Jews: the promise to Abraham that the whole of humanity would be blessed through his descendants was beginning to be fulfilled! These groups met in homes, usually belonging to a more wealthy member of the group.

And the early Christian groups had their problems! The letters of the early Christian leaders show the kinds of difficulties they had, coming to terms with a new way of living which meant that the old barriers between people were broken down – barriers of gender, slavery and race (Galatians 3:28).

They had to learn that being a follower of Jesus meant you could not simply live as you liked. Care for others, particularly other Christians, came before your own needs. More than that, they had to be ready to suffer for their faith in Jesus – many were excluded socially, others died because they were committed to following him.

6. The end-time

How did the early Christians handle this suffering? How did they understand what God was doing now that Jesus had departed from the earth?

The last book of the Bible, Revelation, offers a vision of God in control of the processes of history which would lift the spirits of persecuted Christians to the great God they served. More than that, the early Christians looked forward to a day when Jesus would return to this earth to complete, finally, the work which he began in his life, death and resurrection.

In that day, Christians look forward to the whole universe being renewed and restored to God’s original intention in creation (Revelation 21:1-8).

It will also be a day in which evil and wrong are removed from the world, in which those who reject God will be judged, and those who trust in Jesus will see God face to face.

The Bible as a witness

The Bible does not simply tell this story in a detached way, as a historian might. It is written to invite those who hear its message to respond to Jesus too. It is a testimony to what God has done in history and what God will yet do. It is written to persuade its readers to become followers of Jesus, and to help them understand how to follow him in company with others. Reading the Bible is like receiving an invitation to a party – it seeks our response!

A Bible study group in East Asia represents the millions down the ages who have heard the Bible’s story and responded to become followers of Jesus.

A Bible study group in East Asia represents the millions down the ages who have heard the Bible’s story and responded to become followers of Jesus.

Bible versions

The Bible has been translated into many languages over the last 2,000 years since the Christian faith began.

Many different English versions have been produced, especially in the 20th and 21st centuries. Today those who read in English have several to choose from.

Some people love the older translations (most famously the Authorized or King James’ Version). But many find them difficult because they are using a form of English that is no longer current.

It is worth trying two or three versions out. You might like to try the following modern versions:

New Revised Standard Version

Today’s New International Version

Good News Bible

Revised English Bible.

Each of the versions has been produced for a particular reason or reader. See ‘English Versions’, p.77.

How Bible references work

Sections of the Bible are referred to using a system which began in the 13th century AD.

Each book within the Bible has a name. This comes first in a reference.

Each book is sub-divided into ‘chapters’ (sections between half a page and a page or so long). The chapter comes next in the reference.

Each chapter is then divided into numbered ‘verses’ (a sentence or two).

So a typical Bible reference gives the book, chapter and verse(s). For example:

Romans 3:21-26

Genesis 12:1-3.

That makes it easier to find.

Use the references to find your way around the Bible, but don’t let chapters and verses dictate how you read a particular passage! They were not there in the original Hebrew and Greek, and sometimes there is a chapter break in the middle of an important story, or argument, spoiling the flow.

Reading the Bible

Stephen Travis

Reading the Bible can be difficult. Sometimes it is exciting, life-giving. But sometimes we find it puzzling.

So how do we get into it and stay with it?

It helps to be clear why we are reading. People read the Bible for many different reasons.

You can read it as literature. The Psalms, for example, and the book of Isaiah are rated among the greatest books of the world.

You can read it to discover the history of the ancient world.

You can read the Bible to study the foundations of Jewish and Christian beliefs and ethical standards.

Or you can read the Bible to discover the themes and stories which inspired the work of many of the world’s artists, musicians and writers.

All these are positive reasons for studying the Bible. But we get to the heart of the matter only if we ask why the biblical books were written.

What motivated the people who told the stories, composed the psalms, wrote the letters, prophesied the future?

When... an individual humbly takes this book written by ordinary people, with the marks of time and the difficulties caused by transmission evidently upon it, the Holy Spirit gets to work and conveys Christ through it to the mind and heart and conscience of the reader.

Donald Coggan

How did they see God impacting on human lives?

We may summarize their purpose under four headings.

Story

First, they tell the story of how God invited a particular group of people to get to know him, so that in the long run the whole world may learn to know and love him. Despite the variety of books within the Bible, and the long time-span over which it was written, there is a thread running through the whole which gives perspective to the different parts.

The Bible is like a compass, giving direction to our lives.

The Bible is like a compass, giving direction to our lives.

Relationship

Secondly, they speak about our relationship with God. There are stories about people aiming to obey God, messages of prophets and apostles urging people to rediscover God’s way for them, prayers of people longing to know God’s blessing.

Community

Thirdly, they speak about our relationship to God’s people, the church. The books of the Bible were written mainly for a community, not for individuals. So we may find that their message addresses us more clearly when we study the Bible with others rather than on our own.

Society

Fourthly, they speak – especially in the Old Testament – about our relationship to society and to the world. The Bible is not a book about private religion. It shows how God’s people are meant to reflect in their own lives God’s character and his concern for the whole world.

If, then, we want to hear the Bible’s message, how do we set about reading it?

Recognize the variety in the Bible. There is story and parable, prayer and love song, prophecy and proverb, visions of heaven and practical guidance for everyday life.

There are many different aspects to our lives and God has an interest in all of them. For this reason, it is not normally a good idea to try to read the Bible through from Genesis to the end. It is better, for example, to move from time to time between the Old and New Testaments.

A good plan might be to begin with a Gospel, then to read a few psalms, then one of the shorter letters of the New Testament, and then the first section of Genesis (chapters 1 – 11).

Ask, ‘What kind of a book am I reading?’ We read a history book in a different way from a car maintenance manual. And different kinds of biblical books need different approaches. When I read the Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5 – 7) I pause over each phrase, because every word of Jesus is a vital clue to Christian living. When I read the Old Testament book of Ecclesiastes I take a more relaxed approach, smiling at its wry insights into human nature.

Try sometimes to read large sections at one go, especially if you are studying a narrative book. We wouldn’t read just a couple of pages of a novel and then put it aside until tomorrow.

Read a Gospel as a whole and you will notice things about Jesus you never thought of before.

Read through the story of David in 1 and 2 Samuel and you will gain a sense of God’s involvement in all the ups and downs of his life which you could never grasp by reading only a few verses at a time.

As you read, ask what insights the passage offers about the four aspects of the Bible’s purpose described above: What do I learn about God’s plan for the world; about my relationship with God, with God’s people, and with society and the world?

Reading the Bible together with others can be a stimulating way to study it, as each person shares their understanding.

Reading the Bible together with others can be a stimulating way to study it, as each person shares their understanding.

Of course, not every passage will shed light on each of those four areas of our life. But there will always be something to help you reflect on your life with God.

We need also to allow the Bible to ask questions of us – to allow it to challenge our assumptions, our behaviour and our priorities.

We shall hear its message if we come to it with a proper reverence – not a reverence for print on paper, but for the God who addresses us through the Bible.

Don’t be put off by the feeling that you ought to do a crash course in biblical interpretation (‘hermeneutics’, as it is often called) before you are qualified to read the Bible itself.

There are guides and study books which can help (and see further ‘Interpreting the Bible down the ages’, p.53). But no one learns to play football by sitting in an armchair reading coaching manuals! So read the manuals, such as this Handbook. But don’t let them stand between you and getting on the pitch!

The Bible isn’t a cookbook with a recipe for every circumstance of modern life. It acts more like a compass to guide us in the right direction, than a map with every detail marked in. The Bible’s message gradually makes us the people we are meant to be.

The Bible makes the Christian, and the Christian responds to God and to the issues of life in a Christ-like way.

THE BIBLE IN ITS SETTING

Making connections – the Bible and world history

2000 BC – AD 2000

The Bible in its time

For further details see supplementary charts:

The Old Testament story

Kings of Israel and Judah

The prophets in their setting

The New Testament story

Bringing the past to life

John Bimson

‘Does archaeology prove the Bible is true?’

This is a question frequently put to archaeologists who also work with the Bible. The questioner usually wants to know whether there is archaeological evidence that particular events happened.

In fact archaeology can rarely provide evidence of that kind. More often it provides a background against which the Bible can be better understood.

New approaches

Today, archaeology involves much more than the excavation of tells. Regional surveys can help us to see how cities, villages and nomad encampments related to each other, and to understand the ancient environment, food production and changing patterns of settlement.

These approaches may seem to have little to do with the Bible (and some archaeologists dislike the term ‘biblical archaeology’), but if they enable us to understand how society worked in biblical times they can indirectly bring the Bible to life for the modern reader.

The tell (ruin-mound) of the ancient biblical city of Lachish. inset: Archaeologists excavate a 1,500-year-old mosaic in the village of Aluma, Israel.

The tell (ruin-mound) of the ancient biblical city of Lachish.

inset: Archaeologists excavate a 1,500-year-old mosaic in the village of Aluma, Israel.

UNCOVERING ANCIENT CITIES

Until recently a great deal of biblical archaeology involved the excavation of tells, the ruin-mounds of ancient cities. Cities in biblical times were often rebuilt many times on the same spot, usually following destruction by enemies, fires or earthquakes. A city which is frequently rebuilt on top of its own ruins will eventually form a sizeable mound, and such a mound is a tell in Arabic (or tel in Hebrew). Excavating a tell means digging into many layers (or strata), each layer representing a period of occupation. Careful excavation and recording enables archaeologists to piece together the history of a city, to see changes in its status and culture.

A CAUTIONARY TALE

Early attempts to link archaeological discoveries with the Bible led to some misleading conclusions. A series of long, rectangular buildings discovered at Megiddo in 1928 (above) were interpreted as stables and dated to the time of Solomon. The find was soon linked with a reference in 1 Kings 9:15 to Solomon rebuilding Megiddo, and with the ‘chariot-cities’ mentioned three verses later.

Subsequently the buildings were redated to the reign of Ahab, a full century after Solomon. Now it is suggested that these buildings may be later still, and some archaeologists doubt whether they were stables at all. This should caution us against making hasty connections. Archaeological evidence is not always easy to interpret.

POTTERY HELPS WITH DATING

The dates of a tell’s strata are usually established by its pottery. Pottery styles were always changing, so fragments of pottery (always plentiful in occupation layers) are a good clue to the date when a particular stratum was a flourishing city. Ultimately, the dates of the pottery styles depend on connections with Egypt or Mesopotamia, regions where long periods of ancient history have been reconstructed from lists of kings.

Light on the Old Testament

Often archaeology illuminates the cultural, rather than the historical setting of an event in the Bible, as these Old Testament examples show.

SOLOMON’S TEMPLE

The plan of Solomon’s Temple, with its three-fold division, has parallels from Canaanite temples of the Late Bronze Age, as well as a later temple from north Syria. Inside, Solomon’s Temple had wooden panels carved with cherubim, palm trees, gourds and flowers. Carved ivory plaques of Phoenician style, found at Samaria (palms picture, left) and in Syria and Assyria, provide parallels to these designs.

Solomon’s practice of covering much of the interior decoration of the Temple with gold can be illustrated from Egyptian temples.

These examples help us to picture the Jerusalem Temple. They also show that the details of the description are completely plausible in their proper context.

OLIVE OIL PRODUCTION

Olive oil was one of the most important products of biblical times (Hosea 2:8, etc.). It was used for cooking, lighting, cosmetics and in various rituals.

Excavations at Ekron (Tel Miqne, on the coastal plain west of Jerusalem) have thrown light on olive oil production from the 7th century BC.

Rectangular basins and stone rollers were used for crushing the olives to a pulp, and each basin was flanked by two vats for pressing the pulp to produce liquid (20-30% oil). Several 77kg/170lb stone weights were used in the pressing process. It is calculated that Ekron’s 115 oil presses could have produced 500 tons, or 145,000 gallons in a season.

The Rosetta Stone was found by Napoleon’s men near Rosetta on the River Nile. It records a decree of King Ptolemy V of Egypt, in Greek (bottom), Egyptian demotic script (middle) and hieroglyphs (top). It was the key to understanding ancient Egyptian writing.

The Rosetta Stone was found by Napoleon’s men near Rosetta on the River Nile. It records a decree of King Ptolemy V of Egypt, in Greek (bottom), Egyptian demotic script (middle) and hieroglyphs (top). It was the key to understanding ancient Egyptian writing.

A seal inscribed ‘Abdi, servant of Hoshea’ (Israel’s last king: 2 Kings 17).

A seal inscribed ‘Abdi, servant of Hoshea’ (Israel’s last king: 2 Kings 17).

The victories of Pharaoh Merneptah (about 1208 BC) are recorded on this stele (over 2m/7ft high). It contains the earliest reference outside the Bible to a people called Israel.

The victories of Pharaoh Merneptah (about 1208 BC) are recorded on this stele (over 2m/7ft high). It contains the earliest reference outside the Bible to a people called Israel.

This ring, bearing the owner’s name in Hebrew, dates from the 8th-7th centuries BC.

This ring, bearing the owner’s name in Hebrew, dates from the 8th-7th centuries BC.

INSCRIPTIONS

There is now plenty of archaeological evidence that some level of literacy was widespread in ancient Israel, as the Bible suggests (see, for example, Judges 8:14; Isaiah 10:19). Inscriptions on pottery and stone vessels, on tombs, weights, ivories and seals have turned up at many localities. Some of these throw further, indirect light on Israelite society.

A collection of ostraca (inscribed pottery fragments) from Samaria, dating from the 8th century BC, record the payment of taxes in kind (wine and oil) to the city’s storehouses. They reveal that a few individuals supplied great quantities – evidence that they were the owners of large estates. The accumulation of land by the rich was widely condemned by the 8th-century prophets, because it was usually at the expense of the poor (Amos 8:4; Micah 2:2; Isaiah 5:8).

Old or broken pottery (potsherds), ready to hand, were often used for short records and letters in ancient times. Here, a contract of debt settlement is written on an earthenware bowl.

Old or broken pottery (potsherds), ready to hand, were often used for short records and letters in ancient times. Here, a contract of debt settlement is written on an earthenware bowl.

The above two pictures show different methods of extracting olive oil: oldest is the beam and weight; then the heavy stone roller, and latest the crusher.

The above two pictures show different methods of extracting olive oil: oldest is the beam and weight; then the heavy stone roller, and latest the crusher.

These pots were for storing olive oil.

These pots were for storing olive oil.

Light on the New Testament

RELIGIOUS LIFE

The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947 transformed our view of Jesus’ world.

The Scrolls revealed a branch of Judaism (probably that of the Essenes) with many distinctive features, and opened our eyes to the fact that Judaism in the 1st century was not one, static faith; it was changing and contained great variety within it.

Dead Sea Scrolls, before the delicate work of separating the tightly rolled layers.

Dead Sea Scrolls, before the delicate work of separating the tightly rolled layers.

Among the scrolls relating to the community itself were texts of the Hebrew scriptures 1,000 years older than any previously known. This is part of the Isaiah scroll.

Among the scrolls relating to the community itself were texts of the Hebrew scriptures 1,000 years older than any previously known. This is part of the Isaiah scroll.

The Dead Sea Scrolls were put in storage jars like these and hidden in local caves by the Qumran community when it was overrun by the Romans at the time of the Jewish Revolt.

The Dead Sea Scrolls were put in storage jars like these and hidden in local caves by the Qumran community when it was overrun by the Romans at the time of the Jewish Revolt.

Excavation at Qumran has uncovered the scriptorium where the scrolls were written and carefully copied.

Excavation at Qumran has uncovered the scriptorium where the scrolls were written and carefully copied.

KING HEROD’S BUILDINGS

In many respects the world Jesus knew had been given its character by Herod the Great (37-4 BC). Herod was responsible for many building schemes which transformed Jerusalem and other cities of his kingdom, such as Hebron, Jericho and Samaria (renamed Sebaste, a Greek name honouring Augustus Caesar).

At Caesarea (also named in honour of the emperor), Herod transformed a small anchorage into a major port, setting his engineers to create an artificial harbour big enough for the largest trading vessels of the time.

The city was built on a matching scale, with a theatre, amphitheatre, public baths, a stadium and a temple to Augustus.

Herod’s own palace in Caesarea later became the residence of the Roman governors of Judea, including Pontius Pilate.

Part of a monument bearing Pilate’s name and title was discovered at Caesarea in 1961 (see ‘Jews under Roman rule: the province of Judea’, p.534).

King Herod’s new theatre at Caesarea.

King Herod’s new theatre at Caesarea.

A present-day aerial view of ancient Caesarea shows part of the archaeological site. The walls are from Crusader times.

A present-day aerial view of ancient Caesarea shows part of the archaeological site. The walls are from Crusader times.

FIRST-CENTURY JERUSALEM

Excavations in the Jewish Quarter of Jerusalem in the 1970s uncovered examples of palatial houses, occupied by upper-class (perhaps priestly) families in the 1st century AD.

One of these, now known simply as the mansion, was built on two levels on a slope. The main living areas were on the ground floor, and the basement level contained cisterns and baths for ritual cleansing. One of the ground floor rooms had an upper storey.

Walls were plastered inside and out and the interiors were elaborately ornamented. Some of the floors were decorated with mosaics. Luxury glassware and pottery, and stone tables of high quality were found in these houses, which had been destroyed in AD 70 when Jerusalem fell to Roman armies.

These finds give a glimpse of the life enjoyed by the wealthy of Jesus’ day, such as the ruler in Luke 18:18-23.

CAPERNAUM

By contrast, clusters of houses excavated at Capernaum illustrate the much more basic homes of people living in the provinces.

The walls were of unshaped basalt stones, with smaller stones and plaster to fill the gaps. Some floors were cobbled, and small objects could easily have been lost between the stones, as in Jesus’ parable of the lost coin (Luke 15:8). Some houses had an upper storey. Roofs consisted of beams supporting branches or reeds, covered with baked clay.

Rooms and objects uncovered by excavations in Jerusalem’s Upper City, opposite Herod’s Temple. These houses had been burned down when the Romans took Jerusalem in AD 70, after the Jewish Revolt.

Rooms and objects uncovered by excavations in Jerusalem’s Upper City, opposite Herod’s Temple. These houses had been burned down when the Romans took Jerusalem in AD 70, after the Jewish Revolt.

Partial reconstruction of one of the Jerusalem houses destroyed in AD 70. Its furnishings and mosaic floor give an idea of the lifestyle of wealthy people, only 40 years after Jesus was put to death.

inset: Sometimes beautiful examples of skilled craftsmanship come to light, like this glass vase, dated close to the lifetime of Jesus.

For more information on daily life see:

Nomadic life 198

Settled life 242

EVERYDAY LIFE

In the very dry climate of the Dead Sea basin, sandals, baskets, mats and clothing have survived from the 1st and 2nd centuries at Masada and Engedi. These provide unique glimpses into everyday life in ancient Judea.

Bronze jugs, plates and household objects have been recovered from Masada.

Bronze jugs, plates and household objects have been recovered from Masada.

Cosmetic jars, a comb and other items recovered from Masada.

Cosmetic jars, a comb and other items recovered from Masada.

Sandals, too, have survived the centuries almost intact.

Sandals, too, have survived the centuries almost intact.

A reconstructed well helps us to understand an important aspect of daily life in Bible times.

A reconstructed well helps us to understand an important aspect of daily life in Bible times.

The land of Israel

Israel has never been a large or particularly powerful country. The distance from Dan in the north to Beersheba in the south is less than 230km/150 miles. But its position on the narrow strip of land between sea and desert at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea has given it a special importance. From early times to the present day the land and its people have been caught in a succession of power struggles. In Bible times this was mostly between the great civilizations of Mesopotamia to the north-east and Egypt to the south.

Produce and resources

Israel produces a wide variety of crops. Cereals and pulses, green vegetables, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives and dates have been grown since Bible times.

From the days of Abraham and before, sheep and goats have grazed the rough and stony hills, providing milk, meat and wool. Richer pastures support cattle. Fish are plentiful in Lake Galilee.

The Dead Sea supplies salt and minerals. Further south, copper has been mined, and the desert has a wealth of minerals.

For further information see:

Animals and birds 38

Trees and plants 40

Pomegranates are one of the many fruits of the land the Old Testament describes as ‘flowing with milk and honey’. The shape was copied around the edge of the High Priest’s robe, and carved on the pillars in Solomon’s Temple.

Pomegranates are one of the many fruits of the land the Old Testament describes as ‘flowing with milk and honey’. The shape was copied around the edge of the High Priest’s robe, and carved on the pillars in Solomon’s Temple.

CROSS-SECTION OF THE LAND

The geographical regions of Israel run roughly north to south, parallel to the coast. Inland, the coastal plain gives way to low hills, then the main central highland forms the ‘backbone’ of the whole country. Beyond these mountains the land drops steeply to the Jordan Valley, with more mountain ranges to the east.

THE COASTAL PLAIN

The southern end of the coastal plain was once the land of the Philistines. Near Haifa, in the north, the plain is broken by the Carmel range of hills which runs inland to join the central highlands.

THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS

The hills of Samaria, and the Judean hills to the south, are part of this ‘backbone’ region of rough, rocky hills.

RAINFALL

Israel has two seasons: winter, cold and wet; summer, hot and dry. The temperature varies a great deal from region to region. In winter Jerusalem may have snow, Galilee freezing rain, while Jericho enjoys an average temperature of 15°C/59°F. In summer, 22-25°C/71-77°F is average for the coast and hills; the Dead Sea has a constant daytime 40°C/104°F. The rains begin in October, are heaviest in December/January and end about April.

THE JORDAN VALLEY

The Jordan rises close to the foot of Mt Hermon and flows south, descending about 1000m/3000ft by the time it reaches the Dead Sea (the lowest place on earth, at its deepest, more than 800m/2600 ft below sea level). The valley is a deep trough, created by geological faults in this unstable area. It has a hot and humid climate all its own.

GALILEE

North of Carmel the land opens out into the broad, fertile plain of Esdraelon/Jezreel. Beyond lie the hills and valleys surrounding Lake Galilee. The town of Dan and snow-capped Mt Hermon (2840m/9232ft) mark the northern boundary.

THE DESERT

South of Beersheba lies the Negev Desert. Here rainfall is low, with only tiny patches of green and the occasional acacia tree among the bare brown hills. These get higher, more rugged and dramatic, towards Sinai in the south.

Animals and birds

Animals

From before Abraham’s time, sheep and goats have grazed the rough and stony hills of Israel, providing milk, cheese and meat. Wool for clothing has always been especially valuable.

The richer pastures of Gilead and Bashan, east of the River Jordan made these regions famous for their cattle.

Camels and donkeys have been beasts of burden and people-carriers in Middle Eastern countries from very early times. Mules are a cross between donkey and horse. There were horses in Egypt by Joseph’s time. They drew chariots and were ridden into battle.

Many more wild animals inhabited Israel in Bible times than live there today – wolves, lions and bears, fox and jackal, the wild ass (onager), ibex, deer and gazelle, mouse, rat and other small creatures as well as the shy rock hyrax.

For more pictures and information see:

Sheep and goats 144, 269, etc

Locusts 165, 489

Quail 196

Donkeys 248, 259, etc

Raven 291

Hyrax 383

Dove 405, 599

Gazelle 405

There were many snakes, most of them harmless, but a few that could be deadly, including the desert carpet