Juvenile Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual

By Louise Scheuer, Sue Black and Maureen C. Schaefer

The need for a laboratory and field manual to assist with the evaluation of juvenile skeletal material is long overdue. This resource is essential for the practising osteoarchaeologist and forensic anthropologist who requires a quick, reliable and easy-to-use reference to aid in the identification, siding and aging of juvenile osseous material. While excellent reference books on juvenile osteology are currently available, no pre-existing source adequately fills this particular niche in the market. This field manual is designed with practicality as its primary directive. Descriptions of each bone contain 1) morphological characteristics useful for identification, 2) other elements with which the bone may be confused, 2) tips for siding, 3) illustrations of varying developmental phases, 4) data useful for ageing, and 5) a summary of developmental timings. Concise, bullet-style descriptions assist with quick retrieval of information.Unique to this manual is the presentation of data collected from a variety of populations, utilizing a range of observational methods, as an alternative to providing one overall aging summary that is derived from a compilation of many individual sources. This manual provides a host of data on a variety of populations to enable the user to select the reference most applicable to their needs. The final chapter combines information from each bone to provide a summary of developmental changes occurring at different life stages to act as an immediate 'ready reckoner' for the knowledgeable practitioner. It also provides forms useful for documenting juvenile material and diagrams to help with the recognition of commingled juvenile remains. The manual is a must for anyone responsible for the evaluation of juvenile osseous material through dry bone assessment, radiographs, sonograms, and or CT scans.

• Identifies every component of the developing skeleton
• Provides detailed analysis of juvenile skeletal remains and the development of bone as a tissue
• Summarizes key morphological stages in the development of every bone
• Provides data on a variety of populations to enable the user to select the reference most applicable to their needs
• Focuses on practicality, with direct, bullet style descriptions
• Provides forms for documenting juvenile material
• Provides diagrams to help with the recognition of commingled juvenile remains
• Final chapter provides summary of developmental changes occurring at different life stages to act as an immediate 'ready reckoner' for the practitioner

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jul 28, 2010
• ISBN: 9780080878188

Louise Scheuer

Professor Louise Scheuer is a retired anatomist and forensic anthropologist who taught at several London medical schools including 20 years at St.Thomas’s Hospital Medical School and the Medical School of University College London. She is a past President of the British Association of Clinical Anatomists and holds an Honorary (Chair) Professorship at Dundee University. She is a member of the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the British Association of Clinical Anatomy and a Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute and of the Royal Society of Medicine. She and Sue (Prof.) Black held a Leverhulme Grant for the conservation and re-evaluation of the St. Bride’s Church skeletal collection. She has worked with forensic pathologists, coroners and police on the identification of human remains and was a forensic anthropologist in the British Foreign and Commonwealth Team investigating war crimes in Kosovo in 1999 and the team examining the 7/7 London tube bombings in 2005. She is the past Chairman of the Forensic Examination Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute.

Book preview

Juvenile Osteology

A Laboratory and Field Manual

Maureen Schaefer

Sue Black

Louise Scheuer

Brief Table of Contents

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Chapter 1. The Head and Neck

Chapter 2. The Dentition

Chapter 3. The Vertebral Column

Chapter 4. The Thorax

Chapter 5. The Pectoral Girdle

Chapter 6. The Upper Limb

Chapter 7. The Pelvic Girdle

Chapter 8. The Lower Limb

Chapter 9. Summaries, Recording Forms, and Practical Sequencing Information

Table of Contents

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Chapter 1. The Head and Neck

The Fetal Skull

The Occipital

Metrics

Union Timings

Morphological Summary

The Temporal

Postnatal Growth and Fusion

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Sphenoid

Principal Components

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Parietal

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Frontal

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Nasal

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Ethmoid

Morphological Summary

The Inferior Nasal Concha

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Lacrimal

Morphological Summary

The Vomer

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Zygomatic

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Maxilla

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Palatine

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Mandible

Metrics

Morphological Summary

The Hyoid

Morphological Summary

Chapter 2. The Dentition

Dental Recording Systems

Example of Recording System

Cusp Terminology

Deciduous Dentition

Permanent Dentition

Incisors

Deciduous versus Permanent

Maxillary versus Mandibular

Central versus Lateral

Left versus Right

Canines

Deciduous versus Permanent

Maxillary versus Mandibular

Left versus Right

Premolars

Maxillary versus Mandibular Premolars

First versus Second Premolars

Left versus Right Premolars

Molars

Deciduous versus Permanent Molars

Maxillary versus Mandibular Molars

First versus Second Deciduous Molars

First, Second, or Third Permanent Molar

Left versus Right Molars

Metrics

Development

Emergence

Combined Methods

Chapter 3. The Vertebral Column

The Typical Vertebrae

Primary Centers

Secondary Centers

C1—The Atlas

Secondary Centers

Secondary Centers

The Sacrum

Secondary Centers

Metrics

Appearance and Union Times for Primary Centers

Epiphyseal Union Times

Overall Morphological Summary of the Vertebral Column

Morphological Summary C1

Morphological Summary C2

Morphological Summary C3-7

Morphological Summary T1-T12

Morphological Summary L1-L5

Morphological Summary Sacrum

Chapter 4. The Thorax

The Sternum

Appearance Timings

Union Times

Morphological Summary

The Ribs

Primary Centers

The Epiphyses of the Head and Tubercle

Metrics

Morphological Summary

Chapter 5. The Pectoral Girdle

The Clavicle

Primary Center

The Medial Epiphysis

Shaft Metrics

Appearance and Union Times

Morphological Summary

The Scapula

Metrics

Union Times

Morphological Summary

Chapter 6. The Upper Limb

The Humerus

Shaft

Proximal Epiphysis

Distal Epiphyses

Metrics

Appearance Times

General Development and Union Times

Morphological Summary

The Radius

Shaft

Distal Epiphysis

Proximal Epiphysis

Shaft Metrics

Appearance Times

Union Times

Morphological Summary

The Ulna

Shaft

Proximal Epiphysis

Distal Epiphysis

Shaft Metrics

Appearance Times

Union Times

Morphological Summary

The Hand

Primary Centers

Shaft Metrics

Appearance Times

Overall Summary

Chapter 7. The Pelvic Girdle

Primary Centers

Ilium

Ischium

Pubis

Acetabular Changes with Age

Metrics

Appearance and Union Times

Morphological Summary

Chapter 8. The Lower Limb

The Femur

Shaft

Shaft Metrics

Appearance Times

Union Times

Morphological Summary

The Patella

Identification/Siding

The Tibia

Shaft

Shaft Metrics

Appearance Times

Union Times

Morphological Summary

The Fibula

Shaft

Distal Epiphysis

Proximal Epiphysis

Shaft Metrics

Appearance Times

Union Times

Morphological Summary

The Foot

Primary Centers

Shaft Metrics

Appearance Times

Reference

Union Times

Morphological Summary

Chapter 9. Summaries, Recording Forms, and Practical Sequencing Information

Summary Illustrations

Aging Forms

Prenatal Radiographic Aging Form

Postnatal Radiographic Aging Form

Perinatal to Adolescent Aging

Adolescent and Postadolescent Aging (years)

Adolescent and Postadolescent Aging

Skeletal Recording Forms

Skull Recording Forms

Perinatal Skeletal Recording Form

Early Childhood Skeletal Recording Form

Late Childhood Skeletal Recording Form

Perinatal Skull Recording Form

Early Childhood Skull Recording Form

Epiphyseal Sequencing: an Aid to Recognizing Commingled Remains

Background Information

How to Use the Sequence Trees

Copyright

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-0-12-374635-1

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Dedication

To my son Bryce, whose conception and delivery coincided with the development of this book.

Maureen Schaefer

Preface

In response to the lack of a suitable text, in 1990 we began to plan and write a laboratory and field manual of fetal and juvenile osteology that would aid our diagnoses in the mortuary and in the lab. By 1992 it was clear that what we were writing was not suitable for its original purpose and in 1994 we set about a complete re-organisation and rewrite of our text and our thoughts. We had learned so much in those four years from the work of others that it was clear that a reference text was required that would bring together the widely scattered literature that not only spanned hundreds of years but also hundreds of academic publications—and so the foundations of Developmental Juvenile Osteology were laid. The text was published in 2000 and was exceptionally well received, gaining a prize from the Society of Authors and Royal Society of Medicine book awards. However it was large and expensive and can truthfully be described as a major academic reference. Elsevier wanted to produce a student version of the text and in 2004 The Juvenile Skeleton was published. This book received a ‘Highly Commended’ award from the BMA Medical Book Competition. It was aimed almost exclusively at the postgraduate student audience and was not designed for the experienced practitioner. Whilst it retained much of the basic information of its predecessor, tables and raw data were removed leaving only summary information that outlined significant milestone events in the maturation of the human skeleton.

Personal and professional issues took their toll and our drive and commitment to finally produce a laboratory manual were severely challenged. In 2004 Maureen Schaefer commenced her PhD studies at the University of Dundee working on a re-evaluation of epiphyseal closure for age evaluation, utilising data recovered from the deceased following the fall of Srebrenica. She not only completed her degree in the prescribed 3 years, but was responsible for new and stimulating research in age evaluation in the juvenile skeleton and she brought the enthusiasm and drive that was required to see the laboratory and field manual come to fruition—18 years after the original idea.

This text is not designed as an instructor's manual, nor is it for the amateur. It is solely and directly aimed at those who work in the field of age evaluation from the juvenile skeleton, whether in the archaeological or the forensic arena. In the UK, we would call it a ‘ready reckoner’ —something that facilitates analysis and computation for the expert who already is experienced in this area. This is a resource for the practitioner who needs little in the way of academic prose or anatomical explanation, but requires the basic numerical and morphological tools to assist them to undertake their job in a practical environment.

We have requested that it be produced in a format that is directly aimed to meet the needs of the average working environment. The spiral bound presentation is to ensure that it can be opened without pages having to be weighted down; these are in a glossy format to be as resistant to dirt as possible; the format is laid out in a variety of ways to ensure that the practitioner can find one that is most suited to their requirements and we have added some datasheet suggestions.

We have only quoted publications that have utilised material of documented origin or is sourced from material where age has been reliably determined and thereby we have attempted to avoid the circular arguments associated with age estimation in archaeological material. We have given wide ranges for developmental stages and some may differ marginally from those published in Developmental Juvenile Osteology or The Juvenile Skeleton, but they represent the incorporation of the most recent research available. There is no doubt that there are some anatomical regions that are sparse in information but hopefully with time, these will become fewer as the areas are duly addressed where more research urgently needs to be undertaken.

We have now come full circle with a trilogy of texts and other than alterations to new editions—we finally feel that our contribution is complete.

Chapter 1. The Head and Neck

The Fetal Skull

The Occipital

Pars Squama

Identification

Probably indistinguishable from fragments of other vault bones unless a characteristic part, such as the process of Kerckring, is present.

More robust in the region of the foramen magnum than other vault bones.

Orientation

Superior border is angled, inferior border is straight.

Mendosal sutures are obliquely oriented in an inferolateral direction.

Pars Lateralis

Identification

During perinatal life, the inferior surface resembles that of the scapula (see page 7).

Within a single skeleton, the scapula is much larger and its blade is more extensive than the body of the pars lateralis.

Presence of the occipital condyles easily distinguishes the pars lateralis.

Siding

The condylar and jugular limbs are orientated anteromedially.

The condylar limb, as identified by the partial presence of the occipital condyle, is situated inferiorly or ectocranially.

Similar Morphology

Pars Basilaris

Identification

The prenatal pars basilaris is longer and displays a smaller lateral angle when compared to its postnatal appearance. Similar in shape to the manubrium sterni.

During the perinatal period, the pars basilaris is much more substantial than the manubrium sterni, which is barely more than a thin disc.

Following perinatal life, the manubrium remains smaller and thinner with less well-defined borders.

Siding/Orientation

Intracranial surface is slightly concave.

The ectocranial or inferior surface is slightly convex, and parts of the occipital condyles can usually be seen at the tips of the posterior curve.

Anterior border is flat, whereas the posterior border curves to form the foramen magnum.

When viewed anteriorly, the intracranial edge is straight.

Metrics

Notes

Maximum width basilaris: Greatest distance measured in the line of the lateral angles

Sagittal length basilaris: Midline distance between the foramen magnum and synchondrosis sphenooccipitalis

Maximum length basilaris: Maximum distance between the posterior edge of the lateral condyle and the synchondrosis sphenooccipitalis

Maximum length lateralis: Greatest distance between the anterior and posterior interoccipital synchondroses

Maximum width lateralis: Greatest distance between the medial and lateral margins of the posterior interoccipital synchondrosis

Fazekas and Kósa

Notes

Height (chord): Straight line distance from the posterior border of the foramen magnum to the tip of the squama in the midline

Height (arc): Same landmarks as described above taken along the convexity of the occipital bone

Width (chord): Straight line distance from the greatest width of the occipital squama in line of the sutura mendosa

Width (arc): Same landmarks as described above taken along the convexity of the occipital bone

Source

Dry bone measurements on mid twentieth century Hungarian fetal remains from autopsy—males and females combined. Age was estimated based on fetal crown heel length.

Reference

Fazekas, I.Gy. and Kósa, F. (1978). Forensic Fetal Osteology. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.

Scheuer and MacLaughlin-Black