Human Remains: Another Dimension: The Application of Imaging to the Study of Human Remains

By Tim Thompson

Human Remains – Another Dimension: The Application of 3D Imaging in the Funerary Contextbrings together scattered literature on the topic, assimilating disparate pieces that relate to the novel use of non-invasive three-dimensional imaging techniques in the forensic context.

All chapters are written by specialists in the field who use these types of imaging techniques within their research, bringing an engaging and comprehensive view that demonstrates the current use of 3D non-invasive imaging techniques using case studies. In addition, the advantages for using such methods, their current limitations, and possible solutions are also reviewed.

• Includes three dimensional imaging techniques presented from a forensics point-of-view
• Written by well-renowned specialists in the field
• Assimilates disparate pieces that relate to the novel use of non-invasive three-dimensional imaging techniques

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Feb 16, 2017
• ISBN: 9780128046739

Book preview

process.

Chapter 1

Context

Tim Thompson,    Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom

Outline

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Human Remains—Another Dimension

References

1.1 Introduction

It is often said that a picture says a thousand words; in fact this is a phrase that is repeated so often that it has now slipped into cliché and as such, is rarely considered in any great depth. Although it has been attributed as an ancient Chinese proverb, its first use in the English language occurred just over one hundred years ago in the Syracuse Post Standard newspaper as part of a discussion on journalism and publicity. It has been repeated countless times in countless forms since, but always with the same intent—that displaying something visually is a more effective means of explaining something than describing it verbally or with the written word.

Indeed, it is possible to consider many different examples of where this is true. It is the absolute basis for all effective marketing and advertising—a concept which is vividly demonstrated in the M&C Saatchi (2011) training manual, later to be developed into their publication Brutal Simplicity of Thought. Many aspects of our day-to-day lives are also impacted by this philosophy, right down to how we dress as we leave the house—for example, with work showing that the use of imagery and color is vital in the communication of weather information (Sherman-Morris et al., 2015). However, while this type of association between imagery and products or concepts is often linked to making money or influencing behavior, in other contexts the use of imagery focusses on helping people to understand. An obvious example of this would be within the medical context where imaging modalities have been used and developed for many years with the aim of allowing clinicians to detect, diagnose, and treat a variety of medical conditions and problems which had previously been impossible. Often we think of the use of X-rays or CT scans, but equally, creative use of the more straightforward standard photography also continues to offer much in surgical contexts (Murphy et al., 2016). At a larger scale, the Satellite Sentinel Project (http://www.satsentinel.org/) has allowed those working within international criminal and humanitarian law contexts to image and visualize sites of mass violence and extrajudicial killings through the use of satellite remote imaging. This has facilitated a greater understanding of conflict at a regional and national level in a way which has not been possible before. Novel approaches to imaging and visualization also have the benefit of allowing nonexperts or those physically distanced from the object a greater chance of understanding it. Museums have been keen to exploit this and a vast array of cultural objects are now available to view and study through online portals (see, e.g., the interactive Smithsonian X 3D facility at https://3d.si.edu/).

It must be noted however, that a picture on its own does not always assist one to understand a given topic. Research has demonstrated that without any associated commentary, visualizations of complex data are as difficult to understand as the raw data itself (Stofer, 2016). As a further example, within the learning and teaching context students of human anatomy and physiology who use physical plastic models can achieve higher exam scores than those who use virtual images of the body (Lombardi et al., 2014), while those teaching osteology have consistently argued that digital images are not as effective for learning as actual skeletal specimens (Betts et al., 2011; Niven et al., 2009). As with many new developments, a degree of caution is worthwhile as new methods and techniques are adopted into practice.

Across the sciences the development of innovative methods of imaging and visualization has led to a greater understanding of our bodies. The anatomical sciences are a wonderful example of this, with the internal workings of the body being recorded first through hand drawings, then photography, then microscopic photography, and now full three-dimensional imaging of everything from bone cells up to entire systems (e.g., see the likes of Alers-Hankey and Chisholm, 2006; Rifkin et al., 2006). However, for some disciplines, the very images themselves are open to question. Within the forensic sciences, there has historically been much discussion regarding the acceptance and admission of color and then digital photography from crime scenes into the courtroom (Thompson, 2008), while current debate focusses on the admissibility of 3D digitizations largely from the perspective of validation of methods and the CSI Effect on jurors (Errickson et al., 2014).

1.2 Human Remains—Another Dimension

Human remains are studied and analyzed in a wide range of disciplines as researchers attempt to understand more about our bodies, our past, and our societies. In recent years, there has been an increased interest in new methods and approaches to visualizing aspects of the human body and ways in which this can be applied to new and developing disciplines. The aim of this volume is to explore this new frontier of human study by examining the application of a number of imaging and visualization approaches and methodologies to human remains in varying conditions from diverse contexts. We have three key themes that our contributors have brought together within each chapter—a method of imaging, an interesting context of application, and a practical consideration associated with the visualization of human remains.

With this in mind, each chapter explores different methods, contexts, and issues—thus each chapter touches upon different aspects of the three key themes of the book.

The human body is a complex structure, and human osteologists have been extremely comfortable in exploiting many new methods of imaging and visualization in order to more effectively study people from modern and ancient contexts. Booth provides a wonderful example of this through the use of widely available low-powered microscopy to assess bioerosion of buried archeological remains; this is followed by Miszkiewicz and Mahoney who also use this approach to examine bone histology to demonstrate how viewing bone from a different perspective can allow greater understanding of how a person lived their life; Dittmar then applies high-powered microscopy in the examination of trauma, in this case cut-marks on bone; Vallis then emphasizes the important role of imaging human remains in disaster victim identification contexts and the considerations of undertaking this; next, the power of digital visualization in field archeology and in the interpretation of taphonomic factors is discussed by Ulguim; Errickson subsequently provides an example demonstrating the applicability (without ignoring the accompanying challenges) of developing new methods for the visualization of bone surfaces. Despite the successes, many attempts to create osteo-profiles are hampered by bone diagenesis and other taphonomic factors, and this is specifically addressed in this volume by Griffiths and Thompson through the application of noncontact laser surface scanning to bone recovered from the water. Wilson and colleagues tackle similar challenges associated with viewing and assessing the modification of bone when developing a digital bioarcheology approach of study—this time by laser scanning bony modifications caused by illness and disease; Godinho and O’Higgins demonstrate how a greater understanding of human evolution is possible through the strategic use of modern imaging modalities, and the advantages that such an approach has when material is missing or fragmented; and finally, revolutions in the practice of pediatric medicine (with a particular emphasis on cases of suspected child abuse) as a consequence of new approaches to imaging are highlighted by van Wijk and colleagues.

Moving away from the body itself, it is obvious that a broad array of contexts of study may benefit from the availability of such a range of potential methods of imaging and visualizations. However, there is more to debate than just the method and context of application, and so our volume ends with a consideration of an often overlooked aspect of imaging and visualization—the data produced. The relative ease of digitally visualizing the complex body results in a mass of new data being produced, with few academics addressing the key resultant questions: What this data may mean; who owns the data of the dead; is it right to display visualizations of the dead in a public arena; how should we store and preserve this data; and so on. Thus, we conclude our book with discussions on the nature of this digital bodily archive. Niven and Richards of the Archaeology Data Service (University of York, UK) tease out the thorny issues of digital preservation and significance of data formats; Decker and Ford develop these ideas further in their chapter on digital data; and finally, Marquez-Grant and Errickson highlight and explore the challenging ethical debates involved in the display and dissemination of data collected from the imaging of human remains.

It is the aim of this volume to highlight the current state-of-play while crucially providing a springboard for greater discussion of the methods and issues surrounding attempts to visualize the human body—either living or dead, fully fleshed or skeletalized, and across disciplinary boundaries.

References

1. Alers-Hankey V, Chisholm J. Inside the Body: Fantastic Images From Beneath the Skin UK: Cassell Illustrated; 2006.

2. Betts M, Maschner H, Schou C, et al. Virtual zooarchaeology: building a web-based reference collection of northern vertebrates for archaeofaunal research and education. J Archaeol Sci. 2011;38:755–762.

3. Errickson D, Thompson TJU, Rankin BWJ. The application of 3D visualization of osteological trauma for the courtroom: a critical review. J Forensic Radiol Imaging. 2014;2:132–137.

4. Lombardi SA, Hicks RE, Thompson KV, Marbach-Ad G. Are all hands-on activities equally effective? Effect of using plastic models, organ dissections, and virtual dissections on student learning and perceptions. Adv Physiol Educ. 2014;38:80–86.

5. Murphy BL, Boughey JC, Degnim AC, et al. A picture is worth a thousand words: intraoperative photography as a quality metric for axillary dissection. Ann Surg Oncol 2016; http://dx.doi.org/10.1245/s10434-016-5271-7.

6. M&C Saatchi. Brutal Simplicity of Thought UK: Ebury Press; 2011.

7. Niven L, Steele T, Finke H, Gernat T, Hublin J. Virtual skeletons: using a structured light scanner to create a 3D faunal comparative collection. J Archaeol Sci. 2009;36:2018–2023.

8. Rifkin BA, Ackerman MJ, Folkenberg J. Human Anatomy: Depicting the Body From the Renaissance to Today London: Thames & Hudson, Ltd; 2006.

9. Sherman-Morris K, Antonelli KB, Williams CC. Measuring the effectiveness of the graphical communication of hurricane storm surge threat. Weather Clim Soc. 2015;7:69–82.

10. Stofer KA. When a picture isn’t worth 1000 words: learners struggle to find meaning in data visualizations. J Geosci Educ. 2016;64(3):231–241.

11. Thompson TJU. The role of the photograph in the application of forensic anthropology and the interpretation of clandestine scenes of crime. Photogr Cult. 2008;1(2):163–182.

Chapter 2

The Rot Sets In

Low-Powered Microscopic Investigation of Taphonomic Changes to Bone Microstructure and its Application to Funerary Contexts

Thomas Booth,    Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom

Abstract

Microbial bioerosion is the most common form of diagenesis found in archaeological bones and can be visualized using low-powered microscopy applied to histological bone thin sections. Bacterial bioerosion is found almost ubiquitously in archaeological human remains. Studies of both human and faunal archaeological remains have found that the extent of bacterial bone bioerosion varies with early postmortem treatment and reflects the rate and manner of soft tissue loss. Therefore, histological analysis of bone thin sections may be useful for reconstructing past funerary treatments. This chapter will discuss relationships between bacterial bone bioerosion and early postmortem events to explore how microscopic analysis of archaeological bone samples may be used to aid interpretations of funerary treatment. The practicalities of method and interpretation are demonstrated through a series of archaeological case studies.

Keywords

Bone diagenesis; funerary treatment; microscopy; bioerosion; taphonomy; bacteria; decomposition

Outline

2.1 Methods and Assessment

2.2 Danebury Iron Age Hillfort and Suddern Farm Settlement, Hampshire, UK

2.3 Church of St. Mary and St. Laurence, Bolsover, Derbyshire, UK

2.4 East Smithfield, London, UK

2.5 Summary

References

Bone has a distinctive microscopic structure that can be examined using low-powered transmitted light microscopy applied to transversely orientated histological bone thin sections. Woven bone, which consists of irregular organizations of collagen fibrils, is the primary bone microstructure and is gradually replaced by organized parallel lamellae 3–7 µm thick (Junqeira et al., 1986). Circumferential lamellae form the outer (periosteal) and inner (endosteal) surfaces (Fig. 2.1). Osteonal bone forms when lamellae are laid down around longitudinally orientated blood vessels, producing a central cavity known as a Haversian canal (Fig. 2.2). Osteons that form as a result of remodeling (secondary osteons) are defined by a mineralized barrier called a cement or reversal line. Haversian canals are connected by transverse Volkmann’s canals (Fig. 2.3). Interstitial bone consists of parallel lamellae lying between osteons. Star-shaped osteocyte lacunae, which contain osteocyte cells, pervade all bone microstructures and are connected to each other and Haversian canals by fine canaliculi. Bone is birefringent, meaning that the arrangement of internal microstructure becomes more distinct when viewed under polarized light (Fig.