Paleopathology of the Ancient Egyptians: An Annotated Bibliography 1995–2016 Updated Edition

By Lisa Sabbahy

This updated and expanded annotated bibliography presents and describes over 1,200 books, dissertations, excavation reports, and articles relevant to the paleopathology of the ancient Egyptians from the fields of Egyptology, physical anthropology, archaeology, and medicine, making it possible for scholars in these different fields to keep current with the latest finds and results. Each source has a short annotation explaining its relevant pathological information, so that scholars can ascertain whether or not any particular source is germane to their own research, and see what is being studied and published by others. In particular, this bibliography will be an immense help to scholars outside the field of Egyptology who want to know about the newest excavations with human remains. It will be indispensable to scholars as well as non-specialists who are intrigued by this area of study, particularly forensic pathologists, medical researchers, historians of medicine, and mummy enthusiasts.

• Language: English
• Publisher: The American University in Cairo Press
• Release date: Sep 11, 2018
• ISBN: 9781617977282

Lisa Sabbahy

Lisa Sabbahy is an assistant professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo. Her research interests include the titulary and iconography of ancient Egyptian queens, clay anthropoid coffins, gender in ancient Egypt, and the paleopathology of the ancient Egyptians.

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Abdelfattah, Alia, Adel Allam, Samuel Wann, Randall Thompson, Goma Abdel-Maksoud, Ibrahem Badr, Hany Abdel Rahman Amer, et al. 2013. Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in Egyptian Women: 1570 BCE–2011 CE. International Journal of Cardiology 167: 570–74.

The paleopathological information in the article concerns the CT scan of the mummy of Lady Rai, a nursemaid to the royal family in the early Eighteenth Dynasty. She had calcified atherosclerotic plaque in her abdominal aorta, and calcification in her heart that may represent calcification of a prior myocardial infarction.

Abd el-Rahman, Mohamed Faroug. 2002. Gheresli: A Post-Meroitic Activity Centre in the Blue Nile Region. Sudan and Nubia 10: 104–109.

This is a report on evidence from a post-Meroitic site that seems to have been a cemetery for children, including a description of five infant burials.

Adams, Matthew J. 2009. An Interim Report on the Nagada III–First Intermediate Period Stratification at Mendes 1999–2005. In Delta Reports: Research in Lower Egypt, vol. 1, edited by Donald Redford, 121–206. Oxford: Oxbow Books.

Reference is made to the Lovell and Whyte 1999 study (see below) of dental enamel defects, and to the hypothesis that the people of the Old Kingdom may have suffered the most nutritional stress. The Old Kingdom remains at Mendes suffered intense destruction and 35 individuals were swept up in the destruction and were found murdered (p. 203). Unfortunately, so far no study of these particular remains has been published.

Albert, A.M., and D.L. Greene. 1999. Bilateral Asymmetry in Skeletal Growth and Maturation as an Indicator of Environmental Stress. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 110: 341–49.

This study examined the efficacy of bilateral asymmetry in epiphyseal union as an indicator of environmental stress affecting the skeleton. We compared the extent of asymmetry in the postcranial skeleton between two cemetery samples excavated from Medieval Kulubnarti, Sudanese Nubia. To the extent that our results support previous findings that early Christian period individuals were more affected by environmental stress than late Christian period individuals, it is reasonable to consider bilateral asymmetry in skeletal growth and maturation a good indicator of environmental stress. (Taken from abstract)

Alexandre de Carvalho, O. 2002. Catalogue de la collection des ossements humains de la nécropole de Kerma (Soudan) présents au département d’anthropologie et d’écologie de l’Université de Genève. PhD diss., University of Geneva. Not seen.

Alix, Gersende, Éric Boës, Patrice Georges, and Marie-Dominique Neena. 2012. Les enfants dans la nécropole gréco-romaine du Pont de Gabbari à Alexandrie: problématiques et études de cas. In L’Enfant et la mort dans l’Antiquité: Types de tombes et traitement du corps des enfants dans l’antiquité gréco-romaine, edited by Marie-Dominique Nenna, 79–137. Alexandria: Centre d’Études Alexandrines.

This is a report on six sectors of the necropolis at Gabbari, which produced a total of 926 individuals from primary and secondary burials in tombs, and surface burials from Ptolemaic to late Roman times. There were many children, buried either by themselves or with an adult. A detailed discussion is given on pp. 125–28 of individual no. 5 from Locus B17.1A.2, a twelve-year-old male with three kidney stones and enamel hypoplasia.

Allam, Adel H., Abdelhalium Nureldin, Gomma Adelmaksoub, Ibrahem Badr, and Hany Abdel Amer. 2010. Something Old, Something New: Computed Tomography Studies of the Cardiovascular System in Ancient Egyptian Mummies. American Heart Hospital Journal 8, no. 1: 10–13.

An initial report on the project to scan mummies in the Cairo Museum, searching for the presence of cardiovascular tissue and for areas of calcification within the arterial walls. Peripheral arteries including the aorta could be seen in sixteen mummies, and of these five (31 percent) had ‘definite’ focal calcifications. Of the mummies estimated to have died at an age of forty-five or older, seven of eight (87 percent) had vascular calcification.

Allam, Adel H., Randall C. Thompson, L. Samuel Wann, Michael I. Miyamoto, Abd el-Halim Nur el-Din, et al. 2011. Atherosclerosis in Ancient Egyptian Mummies: The Horus Study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology: Cardiovascular Imaging 4: 315–27.

Report on the CT scanning of fifty-two mummies, dating from the Middle Kingdom to the Greco-Roman Period, forty-four of which had identifiable cardiovascular structures, and, of these, twenty had either definite atherosclerosis or probable atherosclerosis.

Allam, Adel H., Randall C. Thompson, L. Samuel Wann, Michael I. Miyamoto, and Gregory S. Thomas. 2009. Computed Tomographic Assessment of Atherosclerosis in Ancient Egyptian Mummies. Journal of the American Medical Association 302, no. 19: 2091–94.

CT scans were done on twenty-two mummies in the Cairo Museum specifically searching for cardiac and vascular calcification. Sixteen of the mummies had identifiable cardiovascular tissue. Five of these mummies had definite atherosclerosis and four more had probable atherosclerosis. Calcification was more prevalent in those who died at forty-five years or older. There are two related letters, Philippe Charlier and Isabell Huynh, JAMA 303, no. 12 (2010): 1149–50, and Gregory S. Thomas, Journal of the American Medical Association 303, no. 12 (2010): 1150.

Allen, James. 2005. The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt, 36–37. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

The Twenty-fifth Dynasty coffin and mummy of Nesiamun are included in this catalog of an exhibition held at the Metropolitan Museum, New York. CT images show serious injuries such as a linear skull fracture and gross disruption of his ribs, compatible with a chariot or horse accident, which caused his death.

Alvrus, Annalisa Brigette. 1997. Trauma to the Teeth and Jaw: Three Nubian Examples. Journal of Pathology 9, no.1: 5–14.

A study of three cases of oral trauma, one accompanied by cranial trauma, in three males found in the cemetery at Semna South, an Egyptian fort in Nubia. The trauma seems to have been the result of interpersonal violence, perhaps caused by blows from a small mace, or fighting stick.

Alvrus, Annalisa Brigette. 1999. Fracture Patterns Among the Nubians of Semna South, Sudanese Nubia. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 9, no. 6: 417–29.

The skeletal material of 592 individuals, almost all Meroitic Period, found at Semna South, were studied for fractures. Of the adults, 21 percent had evidence of at least one healed fracture, most commonly of the cranium. The fractures tended to be in the frontal bone, or the area of the nose, suggesting wounds caused by interpersonal violence.

Alvrus, Annalisa Brigette. 2006. The Conqueror Worm: Schistosomiasis in Ancient Nubia. PhD diss., Arizona State University.

ELISA was used to detect two antigens specific to infection by the schistosome worm in naturally mummified soft tissue of the Meroitic Period from Semna South. In addition, the crania were studied for cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis, in order to see if there was an association between schistosome infection and the presence of anemia. The highest rates of schistosome infection were among adult males; it was the lowest among children, but they were found to have the most frequent anemic indicators.

Ambers, J., and J. Filer. 1997. Dating Soft Tissue from the Sudan. Göttinger Miszellen 161: 29–36.

Endocranial matter was found with skeletons at Soba, particularly skeleton 296 (fig. 3). A sample used for dating also gave a stable carbon isotope measurement, indicating a high C4 plant diet.

Anastasiou, Evilena, and Piers Mitchell. 2013. Palaeopathology and Genes: Investigating the Genetics of Infectious Diseases in Excavated Human Skeletal Remains and Mummies from Past Populations. Gene 528: 33–40.

Discussion relevant to ancient Egyptian human remains can be found on p. 34, tuberculosis, and p. 37, malaria and leishmaniasis.

Andelković, Branislav. 1997. The Belgrade Mummy. [In Serbian] Recueil des travaux de la Faculté de philosophie 19 A: 91–104.

Study of a badly damaged mummy, male, about fifty years of age, Late Period to early Ptolemaic in date. Twelve abraded teeth remain. Spondylitis and scoliosis were noticed.

Andelković, Branislav, and Joshua Harper. 2011. Identity Restored: Nesmin’s Forensic Facial Reconstruction in Context. Issues in Ethnology and Anthropology 6, no. 3: 715–28.

Discussion of the 3D digital reconstruction of the head of Nesmin, a priest from Akhmim, who died in about 300 BC, at around the age of fifty. He is also referred to as the Belgrade mummy.

Anderson, Wendy. 1996. The Significance of Middle Nubian C-Group Mortuary Variability, ca. 2200 BC to ca. 1500 BC. PhD diss., McGill University.

This thesis includes a short chapter on Mortuary Data to Infer Socioeconomic Conditions, discussing studies of Nubian skeletal evidence for nutritional stress, dietary changes, and skull size.

Antoine, Daniel. 2010. Pain in the Neck? An Abnormality from KH27C. Nekhen News, 22: 23.

A single pressure defect was identified on the spine of the body buried in Tomb 6 at HK27C. Unfortunately, the remains were incomplete and the age and sex could not be determined. Of the vertebrae preserved, only C3 had a large pressure defect around the left transverse foramen, while C4 also had an enlarged left transverse foramen but no other remodeling. The appearance and location of the pressure defect on C3 suggests that it was caused by an abnormality of the vertebral artery, but whether it is an aneurysm or a tortuosity is difficult to determine from the bones alone. (Taken from article)

Antoine, Daniel, and Janet Ambers. 2014. The Scientific Analysis of Human Remains from the British Museum Collection: Research Potential and Examples from the Nile Valley. In Regarding the Dead: Human Remains in the British Museum, edited by A. Fletcher, Daniel Antoine, and J.D. Hill, 20–30. London: British Museum Press.

This article has a section on pp. 23–29 entitled Scientific analysis of human remains from the Nile Valley, with a discussion of the evidence for abnormalities of the vertebral artery, and the CT scans of Gebelein Man showing his fatal stab wound.

Appenzeller, O., and A.C. Aufderheide. 1999. Paleoneurobiology and the Autonomic Nervous System. In Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 74: The Autonomic Nervous System, Part I, Normal Functions, edited by O. Appenzeller, 181–97. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.

After an introduction to mummy studies, the authors cover various topics in paleopathology, paleoneuropathology, and paleoneurobiology. Specific reference to ancient Egyptian evidence is made in the discussion of mummified brain CT scans, recognition of sural nerves after rehydration, and the presence of NOS-immunoreactivity, possible meningioma induced hyperostosis in two Egyptian mummies, and charcot joints in a First Dynasty skeleton from Abydos.

Appenzeller, O., C.V. Hoyle, C.M. Sartoro, and M. Appenzeller. 2000. Paleoneurobiology. Chungara, Revista de Antropologia Chilena 32, no. 1: 97–102.

The article discusses the examination of fibers from mummy nerve samples to demonstrate the presence of neurochemicals, and their potential use in the study of nerve disease in ancient civilizations. Sural nerve samples have been successfully taken from ancient Egyptian mummies.

Appenzeller, O., J.M. Stevens, R. Kruszynski, and S. Walker. 2001. Neurology in Ancient Faces. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 70: 524–29.

This article presents a study of paleoneurology based on facial characteristics in the Fayoum mummy portraits in the collection of the British Museum, but it also brings in an examination of thirty-two skulls from Hawara, one of which belongs to the young man, BM 74707, whose face shows progressive facial hemiatrophy.

Aravecchia, Nicola, Tosha Dupras, Dorota Dzierzbicka, and Lana Williams. 2015. The Church at Amheida (ancient Trimithis) in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt: A Bioarchaeological Perspective on an Early Christian Mortuary Complex. Bioarchaeology of the Near East 9: 21–43.

Analysis of two adult males, one adult female, and one younger female, aged between fifteen and seventeen, found buried in a fourth-century church at Amheida. One male died aged forty-five to fifty. He had dental wear, caries, and four abscesses, ankylosing spondylitis, as well as numerous healed fractures: multiple ribs, the right humerus, and left scapula and clavicle. His right scapula had two unusual foramina, probably from sharp force trauma. The second male had significant ossification of his thyroid cartilage, and his left humerus and ulna were fused together from an elbow fracture. The older woman had healed rib fractures. The younger female had linear enamel hypoplasia, and lesions on a rib, the right ilium and left os coxa, probably due to chondrosarcoma or metastatic carcinoma.

Armelagos, George J. 2000. Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years. Natural History 109, no. 4: 50–53.

This discusses the discovery of tetracycline in ancient Nubian and Egyptian bone samples, its origin in the grain used to produce beer, and its possible medical benefits for ancient Nubians and Egyptians.

Armelagos, G.J., K. Kolbacher, K. Collins, et al. 2001. Tetracycline Consumption in Pre-History. In Tetracyclines in Biology, Chemistry, and Medicine, edited by M. Nelson, M. Hillen, and R.A. Greenwald, 219–36. Basel: Birkhauser Verlag.

This study focuses on the significant amount of tetracycline incorporated into the bones of a Nubian X-Group population (AD 350–550) prior to death. There is a constant dosage pattern of tetracycline, explained by the use of stored moldy grain in both bread and beer.

Asgar, N. 2008. Pathogenic Investigation of Mummified Remains from the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt. MA thesis, University of Manchester.

A palaeomicrobiological investigation was conducted on 33 tissue specimens derived from anthropogenically-mummified remains at the Kellis site in the Dakhleh Oasis (Kellis I cemetery). 16 rib and lung tissue samples and eight skin (ear) tissue samples were selected to test for the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium leprae respectively. While all samples were negative for M. leprae, a ‘positive’ result for M. tuberculosis and Eubacteria DNA was seen in some of the samples based on gel images. This pathogenic study serves as an approach for studying infectious diseases pertinent to their spreading, incidence and host-pathogen interaction in the ancient population. (Taken from abstract)

Ashby, R.L. 2001. An Investigation of Harris Lines within Ancient Egyptian Human Mummies. MA thesis, University of Manchester.

This study aimed to establish a survey on Egyptian mummies in order to determine the frequencies of Harris lines within a representative sample of the ancient Egyptian population. This was achieved by gathering information from mummies belonging to the Manchester Museum who demonstrate Harris lines, and combining this with radiological studies conducted upon other Egyptian mummies who also demonstrate Harris lines. An examination of x-rays and tomographic images from Manchester mummies was also undertaken, to determine the presence of Harris lines within these individuals and note any difficulties encountered when examining such images for the presence of Harris lines. The frequencies of Harris lines within this sample were found to be quite high and correlated with other studies. (Taken from abstract)

Ashrafian, Hutan. 2012. Familial Epilepsy in the Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt’s Eighteenth Dynasty. Epilepsy and Behavior 25: 23–31.

This paper comprehensively reviews and analyses the medical literature and current evidence available for the New Kingdom rulers — Tuthmosis IV, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun. The description of recurring strong religious visions, likely neurological disease and gynecomastia, supports the theory that these pharaohs may have suffered from a familial temporal epilepsy syndrome that ultimately led to their early downfall. (Taken from abstract)

A comment to this article is listed below (see Cavka, Mislav, and Tomislav Kelava).

El-Ata, Husna Taha, and Hwida Mohamed Adam. 2007. Report on the Human Skeletal Material from Akad. Sudan and Nubia 11: 107–11.

A description of sixteen poorly preserved skeletons recovered in three seasons of work at Akad in northern Sudan. The pathologies were almost all dental conditions, particularly ante-mortem tooth loss.

Attardi, Giuseppe, Marilina Betro, Maurizio Forte, Roberto Gori, Silvano Imboden, and Francesco Mallegni. 2000. 3D Facial Reconstruction and Visualization of Ancient Egyptian Mummies Using Spiral CT Data Soft Tissue Reconstruction and Texture Application. In Virtual Reality in Archaeology, edited by Juan A. Berceló et al., BAR International Series 5843, 79–85. Oxford: Oxbow Books.

This article is a study of the mummified head of an adult male in the Florence Museum (N8643) and its facial reconstruction. The CT scan discovered a healed wound to the cranial vault.

Aubin, M. 2004. Brucellosis in Ancient Nubia: Morbidity in Biocultural Perspective through Time at Semna South, Sudan. MA thesis, Arizona State University. Not seen.

Audic, S., M. El Masouri, and E. Beraud-Colomb. 2002. The Use of Protein Characteristics to Assess the Retrievability of Ancient DNA from Ancient Bones. International Journal of Anthropology 17, no. 1: 17–26.

Study of the amino acids from nine different ancient bone specimens suggests that protein analysis be routinely performed on specimens before DNA analysis to see which are more likely to contain retrievable DNA. It makes specific reference to a bone sample of the Meroitic Period from Geili, Khartoum.

Aufderheide, Arthur C. 2000. Progress in Soft Tissue Paleopathology. Journal of the American Medical Association 284, no. 20: 2571–73.

This article discusses the importance of soft tissue in discovering disease in mummies, even though mummification procedures can destroy a great deal of the evidence. Explains what diseases that leave no bone lesions can be found in soft tissue, and the techniques, such as CT scan, endoscopy, immunological and genetic analyses, useful for soft tissue study.

Aufderheide, Arthur C. 2003. The Scientific Study of Mummies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This massive work covers all aspects of mummies and mummification from all cultures and periods that produced them. The most important chapter for the paleopathology of the ancient Egyptians is chapter 8, Soft Tissue Pathology: Diseases of the Viscera. The sections of the chapter that refer most extensively to physical evidence from ancient Egypt are: otitis media, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, tuberculosis, pneumoconiosis silicosis, gallstones, intestinal obstruction, and gynecological lesions.

Aufderheide, Arthur C. 2008. Pseudopathology in the Mummy Autopsy. In Mummies and Science. World Mummies Research. Proceedings of the VIth World Congress on Mummy Studies, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, edited by Pablo Atoche Peña et al., 593–95. Santa Cruz de Tenerife: Academia Canaria de la Historia.

Aufderheide discusses the potential misinterpretations pathologists make in autopsying ancient mummies because of tissue changes that have taken place over time and through the process of mummification.

Aufderheide, Arthur C. 2009. Reflections about Bizarre Mummification Practices on Mummies of Egypt’s Dakhleh Oasis: A Review. Anthropologischer Anzeiger 67, no. 4: 385–90.

The article includes a discussion of the data for reconstructing the diet of the Greco-Roman inhabitants of Kellis. This is found in more detail in Aufderheide, Cartmell, et al., below.

Aufderheide, Arthur C. 2011. Soft Tissue Taphonomy: A Paleopathology Perspective. International Journal of Paleopathology (in press), online.

This presentation represents a review of the known effects of the postmortem alterations in structure and biochemical content in specimens of human mummies. Awareness of such variations can help prevent misinterpretations of studied findings. (Taken from abstract)

Aufderheide, Arthur C., Larry L. Cartmell, Michael Zlonis, and Patrick Horne. 2003. Chemical Dietary Reconstruction of Greco-Roman Mummies at Egypt’s Dakhleh Oasis. Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities 30: 1–10.

Reconstruction of the diet of the residents of Greco-Roman Kellis by stable isotope methodology indicated close to a pure C3 diet. Analysis of segments of hair from two mummies revealed an essentially monotonous diet for an interval of about twenty months. Coprolite material taken from six mummies gave dietary information; two of the mummies also had pinworms (Enterobius vermicularis).

Aufderheide, A.C., and C. Rodriguez-Martin. 1998. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This book covers every aspect of paleopathology, beginning with the history of paleopathology, and then discussing every type of disease and the evidence for it in the past. Particular discussions using physical evidence from ancient Egypt and Nubia are: atherosclerotic plaques (p. 79); osteoarthritis (p. 94); degenerative joint disease (pp. 96–97); ochronosis (p. 112); tuberculosis in skeletal remains (p. 126) and in lung tissue (p. 263); healed appendicitis (p. 278); arterial calcification (p. 342).

Aufrere, Sydney H. 2000. Les vétérans de Montuhotep Nebhepetre. Égypte, Afrique et Orient 19 (Nov.): 9–16.

This article discusses the remains of the soldiers found in a mass grave at Deir al-Bahari contemporary with the reign of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep. It describes the condition of the bodies, agreeing that their wounds are consistent with having been attacked from above while besieging a town, as stated in the original publication by Winlock.

Aulnette, J. 2010. Histochemical Investigation of the Incidence of Tuberculosis in Ancient Egyptian Lung Tissues. MA thesis, University of Manchester.

Although osseous tuberculosis has been well documented and confirmed in ancient Egypt, few researches have proved the incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis in mummified tissues. This project will concentrate on reviewing and examining the possible evidence of pulmonary and osseous tuberculosis from the ancient Egyptian iconography, texts and mummies. Furthermore, the implications and repercussions of tuberculosis will be cited in order to gain a better understanding of the concept of this disease. Finally this project will be focused upon the incidence of tuberculosis in ancient Egyptian mummified lung tissues. It will attempt to demonstrate the presence of tubercle bacilli by histochemical investigation in mummified lung tissues from the Dakhleh Oasis. (Taken from abstract)

Austin, Anne. 2011. Preliminary Remarks on the Coptic Burials at Karanis. Coptica 10: 45–60.

A dental health assessment of individuals based on two-hundred mandibular molars and over forty mandibles scattered on the surface of burial mounds. Mound 1 and mound 5 offer two very different examples of dental health, but both mounds offer similar conclusions about the health of individuals living at Karanis. Individuals who lived into old age at Karanis were capable of surviving into years when they had very few functional teeth remaining, or when teeth still in place were so worn down, little of the crown of the tooth actually remained at the gum line. (Taken from conclusion)

Austin, Anne. 2014. Contending with Illness in Ancient Egypt: A Textual and Osteological Study of Health Care at Deir el-Medina. PhD diss., University of California.

This dissertation acts as a case study for an archaeology of health care through an investigation of the ancient Egyptian village of Deir el-Medina, the home of the workmen who built the royal tombs during the New Kingdom (1550 BCE to 1080 BCE). I use an interdisciplinary approach that combines texts from the site with osteological data from the villagers’ skeletal remains in order to document both the major stresses on health at the site and Deir el-Medina’s health care networks. Comparisons between Deir el-Medina and other sites in Egypt as well as broader sites in the Western Hemisphere Project show that health was relatively high at Deir el-Medina, but that infectious disease and occupational stress were primary factors impacting the villagers’ health. (Taken from abstract)

Austin, Anne. 2016. The Cost of a Commute: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Osteoarthritis in New Kingdom Egypt. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. Online. DOI:10.1002/oa2575.

This is the first publication of osteoarthritis for the human remains at Deir el-Medina, a dataset which complements comparable populations at sites such as Amarna, Giza, and Tombos. It demonstrates that men in the village of Deir el-Medina experienced significantly higher rates of osteoarthritis in the ankle and knee in comparison to women at Deir el-Medina. This study also includes data from Deir el-Medina’s detailed textual record and intact landscape in order to determine how occupation influenced these higher rates of osteoarthritis. The duration, intensity, and frequency of the workmen’s hikes are reconstructed based on the surrounding landscape and 42 texts recording work days. (Taken from abstract)

Ayer, Amit, Alexander Campbell, Geoffrey Appelboom, Brian Hwang, Michael McDowell, et al. 2010. The Sociopolitical History and Physiological Underpinnings of Skull Deformation. Neurosurgical Focus 29 (Dec.): 1–6.

This includes a discussion of the skulls of the Younger Lady and Tutankhamun, although it presents only an artistic reproduction of Tutankhamun’s head shape based on a CT of his skull.

Azab, Ayman Ahmed Abd el-Ghany. 2000. Stature and Limb Proportions of Ancient Egyptians from the Old Kingdom. MSc thesis, Cairo University.

This thesis presents estimations of limb bone proportions and stature of ancient Egyptians of the Old Kingdom from two socioeconomic classes: workers and high officials, and the determination of the main differences between them. Standard deviations of most limb bone measurements of males are higher than those of females, and all means of long limb bones, except for the humerus and fibula of females, are higher in high officials than workers. Asymmetry in length of limb bones of both sides is also considered.

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Baca, Mateusz, and Martyna Molak. 2008. Research on Ancient DNA in the Near East. Bioarchaeology of the Near East 2: 39–61.

This article reviews the basic concepts, methodologies, and recent developments in the field of DNA studies concerned with evidence from the Near East. Many studies of DNA evidence for disease in ancient Egypt are mentioned, in particular those concerning tuberculosis, leprosy, plasmodium falciparum, corynebacterium diphteriae, leishmania donovani complex, and bacteremia.

Bachmeier, B., A. Zink, H. Rohrbach, U. Szeimies, and A.G. Nerlich. 2001. A Metastatic Malignant Tumor in an Ancient Egyptian Vertebra. In Proceedings of the XIIIth European Meeting of the Paleopathology Association, edited by M. La Verghetta and L. Capasso, 17–22. Teramo, Italy: Edigrafital. Not seen.

Bacon, S.R. 2008. A Histological and Immunohistochemical Attempt to Identify Ancient Egyptian Tuberculosis. MA thesis, University of Manchester.

Histological techniques were applied to 7 specimens of preserved lung tissue and 2 specimens of preserved, but indeterminate tissue, in the hope of providing additional and novel evidence for the presence of tuberculosis in ancient Egypt. No evidence of tuberculosis infection could be found in the tissue of the 9 individuals whose bodies were excavated at the Kellis I burial site in Egypt's Dakhleh Oasis, however, certain other signs of pathology, including anthracosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and aspiration pneumonia, were demonstrated histologically. (Taken from abstract)

Badawi, Fathi Afifi, Josefine Kuckertz, Friedrich W. Rösing, Sabine Bergander, and Stefan Klug. 2016. Merimde – Benisalâme IV: Die Bestattungen. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

The report on the human remains is written by Rösing, Bergander, and Klug, and covers pp. 93–137. After a short discussion of demography and pathology, based on 353 individuals from six different strata, they present a skeletal catalogue. The remains have been badly affected by both soil conditions and how they have been stored.

Baker, B.J. 1997. Contributions of Biological Anthropology to the Understanding of Ancient Egyptian and Nubian Societies. In Anthropology and Egyptology: A Developing Dialogue, edited by Judith Lustig, 106–16. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.

The focus in Nubia is on the osteological work done on the remains from the Wadi Halfa area, spanning the Mesolithic to Classic Christian periods to about AD 1300. The analysis of the bone material showed a pattern of mortality and morbidity characteristic of agrarian societies. One anomaly in the Meroitic Period was the evidence of declining health, which seems tied to the introduction of artificial irrigation and intensive agriculture that spread schistosomiasis and malaria. The Egyptian discussion was based on the author’s work at Abydos, on the remains of fifty-three individuals from the Middle Kingdom Northern cemetery. There was evidence of nutritional stress, especially during childhood, osteologic wear and tear characteristic of heavy labor, poor dental health, as well as some evidence for interpersonal violence and tuberculosis.

Baker, B.J. 1999. Early Manifestations of Tuberculosis in the Skeleton. In Tuberculosis: Past and Present, 299–307. Budapest: Golden Book.

This article presents a pattern likely to represent early stages of skeletal tuberculosis in archaeological samples, including individuals from the Northern Cemetery at Abydos, dating from the Middle Kingdom to the Late Period. The remains of fifty-three individuals were analyzed, with 9.4 percent showing the pattern of proliferative lesions on the internal surfaces of ribs in conjunction with resorptive pits on vertebral bodies.

Baker, B.J. 2001. Secrets in the Skeleton. Archaeology 54, no. 3 (May/June): 47.

A short article on disease and deformity found in individuals excavated at Abydos. A First Intermediate Period infant from a house burial suffered from osteopetrosis. A young woman from a contemporary cemetery displayed a suite of anomalies and probably suffered from a congenital syndrome. There were also two cases of cervical ribs. There was nutritional stress in childhood, and teenage skeletons show repetitive stress such as carrying heavy loads. One woman had a pattern of fractures and cuts on her ribs suggesting physical abuse.

Baker, B.J. 2008. Post-Meroitic to Early Christian Period Mortuary Activity at Ginefab: The 2007 Field Season of the UCSB-ASU Fourth Cataract Project. Actes de la 4e Conférence Internationale sur l’Archéologie de la 4e Cataracte du Nil, Supplément CRIPEL 7: 217–24.

A short discussion of two individuals from a post-Meroitic Period cemetery, Site UCSB 03-01: an adult male from Burial 2 displaying a projectile point through his sternum, and an adult female from Burial 5 with multiple healed skeletal injuries.

Baker, B.J. 2010. King Tutankhamun’s Family and Demise: To the Editor. Journal of the American Medical Association 303, no. 24: 2471–72.

This letter disputes the latest conclusions about the age of the KV55 male, stating that all age indicators from previously published descriptions and photographs contradict the estimate of 35 to 45 years, so this individual cannot be old enough to be the pharaoh Akhenaten.

Baker, B.J. 2014. Tracking Transition in the Fourth Cataract Region of El Ginefab: Results of the Arizona State University Fieldwork, 2007–2009. In The Fourth Cataract and Beyond: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference for Nubian Studies, edited by Julie Anderson and Derek Welsby, 841–55. Leuven: Peeters.

A few pathology comments are made within descriptions of burials. In GS512, the undisturbed remains of a female adult had with them a partially delivered baby (plate 16). Burial 5 in GS212 was a female who had survived interpersonal violence. Burials 6 in GS617 and 37 in GS751 had skeletal trauma.

Baker, Brenda J., Tosha L. Dupras, and Matthew W. Tocheri. 2005. The Osteology of Infants and Children. College Station: Texas A & M University Press.

The first two chapters of this textbook, Studying the Bones of Children and Excavating the Remains of Fetuses, Infants and Children, are illustrated with photographs of skeletal remains from the Abydos Middle Cemetery, the Abydos North Cemetery, the Abydos Settlement Site, and Kellis 2 Cemetery.

Baker, Brenda J., and Margaret Judd. 2012. The Development of Paleopathology in the Nile Valley. In The Global History of Paleopathology, edited by Jane Buikstra and Charlotte Roberts, 209–34. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

As stated in the introduction, this chapter is limited to individuals who studied aspects of health status or disease among ancient Egyptians and Nubians, emphasizing the key developments in the formative years of Nile Valley paleopathology up to the UNESCO High Dam campaign initiated in 1960. Throughout the discussion, examples of the findings and conclusions of these scholars are given, as well as mentioning their most important publications.

Balabanova. S., F.W. Rösing, G. Bühler, M. Teschler-Nicola, E. Strouhal, and J. Rosenthal. 1997. Evidence of Cocaine in Ancient Pre-Columbian Populations from Christian Sayala (Egyptian Nubia). Journal of Paleopathology 9, no. 1: 15–21.

In general, it is accepted that the coca plant was a South American import and was not widespread in Africa, Asia and Europe until after Columbus. However, two different analytical methods, as described in the present study, have demonstrated that cocaine may have been ingested in the Christian Sayala (600–1100 AD) population of the east African region long before Columbus. (Taken from conclusion)

Balabanova, S., F.W. Rösing, M. Teschler-Nicola, E. Strouhal, G. Bühler, C. Michael, and J. Rosenthal. 1996. Was Nicotine Used as a Stimulant Already in the VI Century AD from the Christian Sayala Population? Journal of Paleopathology 8, no.1: 43–50.

Bone samples obtained from 134 naturally mummified human bodies, dated 600 to 1100 AD found at excavations sites in Christian Sayala (Egyptian Nubia), were analysed for nicotine. To 34 individuals also hair remnants were present and analysed. The result demonstrated the presence of nicotine in bone from 115 of 134 individuals and in 27 from 34 hair samples. (Taken from abstract)

El-Banna, Rokia Abdel-Shafy Soliman. 2005. Osteoporosis Assessment in Ancient Egyptian Skeletal Remains. PhD diss., Cairo University.

This study is an assessment of the frequency of osteoporosis in 271 adult skeletons from the Old Kingdom at Giza. The skeletons belonged to both high officials and workers. In males, osteoporosis was higher among workers, but in females, the frequency was higher among officials. This might be explained by male workers being subjected to an excessive amount of physical labor, while women in the high official class may have had a very sedentary lifestyle.

Bárta, Miroslav, Petra Havelková, and Paula Malá. 2013. The ‘Resurrected’ Woman from Abusir. Études et Travaux 25, no. 1: 87–93.

Report on an undisturbed burial of a female at least forty years of age, with spondylosis, degenerative changes of cervical vertebrae, and a Colle’s fracture on the right radius. Skull was well preserved and a facial reconstruction was carried out, which is described in the second half of the article.

Basha, Walaa, Andrew Chamberlain, Moushira Erfan Zaki, Wafaa Kandeel, and Nagui Fares. 2016. Diet Reconstruction through Stable Isotope Analysis of Ancient Mummified Soft Tissues from Kulubnarti (Sudanese Nubia). Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 5: 71–79.

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope values were measured in tissues of Nubian mummies from two Christian cemeteries (AD 550–800) located on the island of Kulubnarti. Protein suitable for isotopic analysis for dietary reconstruction was extracted from soft tissue samples of 90 naturally mummified individuals. This isotope data indicated that the diet of these Nubian populations included a mix of C3 and C4 plants (predominantly C3) in addition to a relatively small contribution of animal protein from terrestrial sources and no aquatic protein sources. A significant difference was found regarding the δ13C values between the two cemeteries which may indicate a diet enriched in 13C (more C4 plants) in the individuals buried in the Kulubnarti R cemetery. (Taken from abstract)

Batey, Ernest K. 2008. Paleodemography in Predynastic Upper Egypt: Investigations of the Working-Class Cemetery at Hierakonpolis. In Egypt at Its Origins 2, Orientalis Lovaniensa Analecta 172,