The Book of Daniel Volume 1. Historical, Literary and Theological Perspectives. The Lives of the Wise in an Anti-God World

By Michael Kenneth Wilson

This book, followed by two volumes of commentary, considers the historical background to the book of Daniel and wrestles with historical problems. It examines the structure and unity of the book, evaluates the significance of the use of narrative, compares the book with apocalypses and prophecy, identifies Old Testament influences upon Daniel and notes New Testament texts that appropriate the language and thought of the book. It also takes a look at two integral theological dimensions, kingship and wisdom.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Michael Kenneth Wilson
• Release date: Aug 13, 2014
• ISBN: 9781311985460

Michael Kenneth Wilson

Mike is the Regional Ministry Director (NSW/ACT/QLD) for SIM Australia:http://www.sim.org.au/ SIM is an international mission organisation with approximately 1600 missionaries serving in over 60 countries.Mike came to Sydney from New Zealand in 1979 to study at Moore Theological College. Mike is married to Barbara and they have three daughters and a son and a growing bevy of grandchildren. The family spent seven years in Pakistan where Mike was involved in leadership training and theological education.Upon returning to Sydney Mike has been involved in full-time cross-cultural ministry training, resourcing and consultancy for 15 years. For 8 years he served as the Cross Cultural Ministry Coordinator for the Presbyterian Church of NSW.He has also lectured part-time at the Presbyterian Theological Centre (Old Testament and Multicultural Ministry), SMBC [Sydney Missionary and Bible College; Multicultural Ministry) and at Moore Theological College (Christian appraisal of Buddhism).

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The Book of Daniel

The Lives of the Wise in an Anti-God World

Volume 1

Historical, Literary and Theological Perspectives

Michael K. Wilson

Copyright Michael K. Wilson 2014

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Michael K. Wilson

The Lives of the Wise in an Anti-God World

The Book of Daniel Volume 1

Historical, Literary and Theological Perspectives

Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture is taken from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION ®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan Publishing House. All rights reserved.

Contents

Foreword

The Message of Daniel

Historical Dimensions

1. Historical Background

Historical Period Relevant to Daniel

2. Historical Problems in Daniel

Appendix: Is the Book of Daniel Pseudepigraphic?

Literary Dimensions

3. The Structure and Unity of Daniel

4. The Interpretation of Narrative in Daniel

5. Distinctively Daniel among the Apocalypses: Comparison and contrast of Daniel and Apocalypses

6. Distinctively Daniel among the Prophets: Comparison of Daniel with Prophecy

7. Biblical Interconnections in Daniel

Theological Dimensions

8. Kingship in Daniel: The Revelation of God's Supreme Kingship in the Context of the Blasphemous Claims of Human Kingship

9. Wisdom in Daniel

Bibliography

Abbreviations

End Notes

Foreword

This commentary is composed of three volumes. The first considers various historical, literary and theological matters. Volume 2 treats Daniel 1-6 and Volume 3 covers Daniel 7-12.

Many commentaries adopt an atomistic approach, which involves a verse-by-verse analysis of the text. While this is foundational for understanding a passage it is but preparatory. For, as readers, what we need to do is understand the main ideas and major points that are being conveyed in a passage of Scripture. Consequently, I have tried to set out my commentaries (I have also written commentaries on Deuteronomy and the Psalms) in a way that, hopefully, enhances the impact of God's Word upon the mind and heart of readers. Any feedback on how I can do this better would be appreciated.

My bibliography, while extensive, will indicate the extent and limits of my research. I fully expect that there are key contributions I've missed. I welcome all the help I can get in identifying 'must read' books and articles.

Daniel is a book that stands in awe of the sovereignty of God. But this sovereignty is not just viewed by the book but extends to the very composition of the book. I entertain no doubt that this is God-breathed Scripture. Yes, it is simultaneously a one hundred per cent human product and, therefore, it is right and proper for us to apply the same methods of analysis and interpretation we apply to literature in general. But remember Daniel means God is my judge. We insult God himself when we treat the book of Daniel as if its authority and standing depends on our assessment and fail to let our sovereign God use this wonderfully constructed book to judge us. If we would stand in awe of our sovereign Lord then we must stand in awe of his sovereign Word.

May studying Daniel be for you a truly 'awesome' experience.

The Message of Daniel

Notwithstanding the disasters and sufferings experienced by God's people, and the desolation of their sacred city and temple, they must understand it is not oppressive foreign rulers who control the course of history. Rather, God the Creator, is Lord of the nations and the Lord of history as he has demonstrated in his dealings with the foreign rulers known personally to Daniel, judging and humiliating them in their pride, and using them to bring glory to himself.

Yet this is no excuse for political conspiracies or acts of sedition, responses conspicuously absent from the lives of Daniel and his friends. Barring the kind of crises faced by Daniel and his friends, God's people, like them, must be faithful servants of the foreign ruler concerned, in recognition of the fact that God has granted him his right to rule. Yet their service must be sharply discriminated from the servile, obsequious service rendered by those motivated by fear, ambition and jealousy. Daniel and his friends exemplified that the allegiance of God's people is first and foremost to God and not to the foreign power. God's people must not compromise on this point, but, like Daniel and his friends, be prepared to forfeit their own lives if so required, and, in fact, many will lose their lives in latter days when human rule will blasphemously defy God and endeavour to blot out his people.

Ultimately all human reigns will be displaced and succeeded by the everlasting reign of God expressed in the vindication of his people, the rebuilding of Jerusalem, and the climactic coming of the messianic ruler to whom God has given all authority, glory and power. But until that time comes, God's people, like Daniel and his friends, can expect to be sorely tried and unjustly treated. God's people will continue to live and suffer under oppressive foreign rule, their sacred sanctuary will again be treated with utter contempt by blasphemous human authority, and even their long-awaited messianic ruler will die. But terrifying as the future might seem, their covenant-keeping God is able to sustain them, and, should he so choose, to prosper them, as he amply demonstrated in the lives of Daniel and his friends. Regardless, he will most certainly and most gloriously deliver his people, even if from death itself, as he already foreshadowed in his miraculous deliverances of Daniel and his friends.

Daniel and his friends provided a model of the covenant-faithfulness and covenant-distinctiveness that must characterise God's suffering people, and of the proper stance to adopt with respect to foreign rule. Like them, God's people need to draw upon God's wisdom, a wisdom which is enabled by God alone and which, in its understanding of the future, cannot be matched by the wisdom available to human rulers. This too was demonstrated in Daniel's lifetime and experiences, with the mightiest of foreign rulers, in their God-created confusion, being at times forced to acknowledge the God of Daniel is the source of the wisdom they desperately need. Indeed, just as through the Book of Daniel, Daniel and his friends teach God's suffering people how to remain faithful to God, so all who are truly wise will teach many to share their understanding of God's over-arching sovereignty and his ultimate purposes, and in so doing, will lead many to live, like them, a life of covenant-faithfulness.

Deity is inaccessible to the elite wise men of this world, but for those, like Daniel, who fear and know God, and who refuse to compromise their ultimate allegiance to God, God is not distant, as indicated by the acknowledged presence of his Spirit in Daniel, and his angelic presence with his servants in times of crisis.

Historical Dimensions

Chapter One

Historical Background

The Man Daniel[1]

Apart from this book not a great deal is known about Daniel, though there are various persons in extra-biblical literature who bear essentially the same name. Also, the same basic name occurs in three other Old Testament books.

Scholars vary as to their assessment of the portrayal of Daniel in the book that carries his name. It is common for modern critical scholars to regard the Daniel of this book as a legendary figure and the Babylonian background as belonging to the realm of fiction.[2] Appeal here is made to supposed errors of fact. Such scholars typically conjecture as to the possible influence of other extra-biblical legendary characters upon the development of what they consider to be the largely fictional character found in the book of Daniel. Some evangelicals entertain such speculations, believing the genre of the book of Daniel is such as to allow God to speak through the medium of what they believe is substantially a work of fiction. Others, like myself, maintain that the character of Daniel presented in this book is that of a solid historical character and that the undoubtedly clever story-telling techniques used are quite compatible with faithfulness to historical accuracy.

A. Extra-Biblical Comparisons

Let us consider various extra-biblical characters who have been compared with Daniel. There are four of these:

1. The Dan'el of the Ras Shamra texts

2. The Da'nel of the Book of Jubilees

3. The Dan'el of 1 Enoch

4. The anonymous Jewish exorcist of the Nabonidus Chronicle

1. The Dan'el of the Ras Shamra texts

In these texts is found a mythological poem, Aqhat, which speaks of a Dan'el who carries the appellation the Dispenser of Fertility.

This Ugarit myth, extracted from three tablets dated around the 14th century BC, sought to explain the earth's barrenness in the eastern Mediterranean region during the dry summer months. To understand the full story it is also necessary to read the Keret cycle.

The plot is as follows: The semi-divine Dan'el (also named Ghazir and Yadinel) was a sage and king of the Haranamites. His name means either God judges or God's judge and he is presented as a righteous judge who defends the rights of widows and orphans. The story opens with the childless Dan'el offering a series of sacrifices over a seven day period in the hope that he will be granted a son. On the seventh day Baal is moved to pity and successfully intercedes with his father El, the supreme god. Subsequently, a son is born to Dan'el, namely Prince Aqhat.

At one point Dan'el provides hospitality for the craftsman deity, Kothar. In gratitude Kothar gives Dan'el a wonderful bow described as being shaped with horns, twisted like a serpent. In accordance with Kothar's instruction, Dan'el passes on the bow on to his son, now a youth.

Now enters the villain of the story. The goddess Anath covets this marvellous bow, which Kothar had originally made for her, and offers Aqhat riches and immortality if he will give it to her. However, Dan'el refuses her offer, telling her that her offer of immortality is but an illusion, given the certainty of death for mortals. Anath is furious at being effectively called a liar. Now she is bent on revenge. Her nagging causes El (Illu) to relent and reluctantly grant her permission to do as she will with Aqhat. She lures Aqhat to a hunting party. Anath turns Yatpan, her hatchet man, into an eagle and in that form he falls on Aqhat and kills him, seizing the bow. However, Anath's attempt to possess the bow is thwarted when Yatpan carelessly drops it into deep waters. The bow breaks, along with its precious arrows.

At this point we come to the heart of the story - the explanation of famine. For Baal, angered by Aqhat's death, refuses to send either rain or dew. Paghat, Dan'el's daughter, comes to him and disturbs him with various accounts of omens, including the withering away of vegetation. She interprets this to mean that someone important must have died. Dan'el tries performing various rituals in an attempt to remove this famine. Then messengers inform him of his son's murder.

He finds Aqhat's corpse and buries him. He curses the towns nearest where his son was slain. He then mourns for seven years, after which he presents a sacrifice to the gods. Then, with Dan'el's blessing, his daughter Paghat sets out to avenge her brother's death. She prays that the gods will bless her mission and, disguising herself as Anath she inveigles her way into Yatpan's presence. Yatpan, believing her to be Anath, boasts that he will slay yet thousands more of Anath's enemies.

The fragmented text ends at this point and we have to guess how the story ends. Presumably, Paghat is avenged on Yatpan and Anath, and fertility is brought back to the earth, perhaps even through a 'resurrection' of Aqhat or maybe through the granting to Dan'el of a replacement son.

The only characteristic that Daniel shares in common with the Dan'el of Aqhat, apart from sharing a common ancient name, is that both are described as righteous, though the Dan'el of Aqhat would hardly be regarded by biblical authors as a model of morality![3] Since it was standard to depict ancient rulers and leaders as righteous or pious this does not provide a strong link between the two figures. The fact of the matter is that there is not the slightest shred of evidence of any connection between them. Indeed there does not even appear to be evidence that the legend of Aqhat's Dan'el was remembered after the demise of Ugarit.

2. The Da'nel of the Book of Jubilees

At Jubilees 4:20 Da'nel is mentioned as being the uncle and father-in-law of Enoch, and thus the great-great-grandfather of Noah.

3. The Da'nel of 1 Enoch

In 1 Enoch 6:7 (a passage which presupposes Genesis 6) one of the angelic leaders is called Dan'el. Some have entertained the possibility of a connection of this figure with Daniel because he is said to have taught charms and enchantments to people.

4. The anonymous Jewish exorcist of the Nabonidus Chronicle

In Daniel 4 we are told of a strange affliction which befell Nebuchadnezzar as an expression of God's judgment upon him. Many believe that this is loosely based on the Nabonidus Chronicle which concerns a skin ailment experienced by King Nabonidus. We will discuss the possibility of a connection between this document and the Book of Daniel later (see Historical Problems). However, assuming the influence of the Nabonidus Chronicle some have thought that the portrayal of Daniel is influenced by the reference in the Nabonidus Chronicle, to an unnamed Jew, an exorcist. Indeed, Davies wildly speculates that this story has been transformed and incorporated into the Book of Daniel.[4]

When we consider the role played by the exorcist in the Nabonidus Chronicle there are glaring contrasts with the portrayal of Daniel's involvement with Nebuchadnezzar's affliction. The exorcist pardons Nabonidus' sin. Daniel does nothing of the kind. Indeed, by contrast, Daniel plays no role at all in Nebuchadnezzar's recovery. Rather, God sets a time period for Nebuchadnezzar's affliction and when that period finishes Nebuchadnezzar praises God.

J.J. Collins, who shows a marked predisposition to find legendary motifs in Daniel, is extravagantly confident in regarding the righteous judge of Ugarit, the righteous wise man of Ezekiel, and the pre-diluvian Da'nel of Jubilees as all related. The legerdemain by which Collins fuses these disparate traditions together is not made clear, aside from assertions that Daniel depends on Ezekiel and Ezekiel's Dan'el must be drawn from the legendary Ugaritic Dan'el. Indeed, he boldly asserts: The hero of the book of Daniel must have inherited some of the associations of this figure.[5]

B. Biblical Comparisons

There are three other Old Testament Books that refer to men named Daniel: Nehemiah, Ezra and Ezekiel.

1. The Daniel of Nehemiah and Ezra

Nehemiah lists 22 priests who joined him in affixing their seals to a binding agreement. One of these priests is named Daniel (Neh 10:6) and it may well be the case that this is the same Daniel who is listed as one of the family heads who came up with Ezra from Babylon during the reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra 8:2).

2. Ezekiel's Dan'el

In the book of Ezekiel God speaks of a Daniel (slightly different spelling) who is clearly very well known and highly respected by Ezekiel and the contemporary Jewish people. Evidently, Ezekiel was himself a Jewish exile and it would seem that he had been carried away as a captive with Jehoiachin about 597 BC (see Ezek 1:1-2; 2 Kings 24:14-16). His prophetic ministry commenced in the fifth year of Jehoiachin's captivity and lasted some 23 years (cf. Ezek 29:17). In two separate prophecies given to Ezekiel, Yahweh highly commends Daniel and deems him to have a righteousness which is commensurate with that of Noah and Job (14:14,20). Here Yahweh condemns any country that sins against him with a judgment so irreversible that not even the presence of such righteous men as Noah, Daniel and Job would save it. The point is that if Yahweh treats such nations in this way there is absolutely no hope of Jerusalem being spared Yahweh's declared judgment (vv21-23).

Modern critical scholars usually link Ezekiel's Dan'el with the Dan'el of the Tale of Aqhat.[6] Justifications include arguments such as the following:

• Noah and Job were righteous Gentiles so Dan'el must be too. In Ezekiel 14 Yahweh is warning Gentile nations not to sin against him and therefore reference to Gentile paragons of righteousness is appropriate, whereas a reference to a merely Jewish model of righteousness is not apposite.

• Noah and Job lived long before Ezekiel so Dan'el must be an ancient figure too.

• The familiarity of the king of Tyre with Dan'el is consonant with a Syro-Phoenician identity.[7]

• The Ugaritic Dan'el was a figure of exemplary righteousness.

• God spared Noah's sons and families because of Noah's righteousness and he spared Job's three friends for the same reason. Therefore, Dan'el is incorporated because he had a similar role.

• Daniel could not have achieved such a reputation in Ezekiel's lifetime.

The modern critical view has its appeal but it must be rejected as ultimately untenable. It must be recalled here that the rabbis of the Talmud, medieval exegetes and, indeed, all commentators throughout church history, until the advent of modern critical scholarship, took it for granted that Ezekiel's Dan'el was one and the same as the Daniel of the Book of Daniel.

We must also recognise that both Noah and Job are eminently biblical characters and it is preposterous to think that Yahweh, who imparted the prophecies to Ezekiel, or Ezekiel himself, would have had any respect for the so-called righteousness of the idolatrous Ugaritic Dan'el, especially given the way in which the book of Ezekiel so strongly inveighs against idolatry.[8]

The Ugaritic Dan'el is twice described as one who judges the widow/orphan. Dressler took this as being merely a functional depiction, whereas Day (176) contends the phrase is more positive, indicating Dan'el actually dispensed justice to widows and orphans. But since this kind of depiction of rulers was commonplace in the ancient world Day fails to show why the Ugaritic Dan'el would emerge as an outstanding example of righteousness akin to Noah and Job.

Also, the Ugaritic Dan'el is not presented as a person whose righteousness caused Canaanite gods to save others. Indeed, he loses his son and, with his daughter, is rather presented as one who curses those associated with his son's death and complicit in his daughter's mission of vengeance. This sets the Ugaritic Dan'el's so-called righteousness at complete odds with that of Daniel who sincerely seeks the good of king Nebuchadnezzar, even though that king had been responsible for the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, the slaughter of Daniel's compatriots and their forcible detention in Babylon. It should be noted that it is because of Noah's righteousness that his sons and daughters are saved and the way is paved for the creation of a new humanity; it is because of Job's righteousness that his comforters are spared from God's judgment and it is because of Daniel's righteousness that his prayer for the restoration of Jerusalem is heard. Nothing in the Aqhat text comes close to such examples.[9]

Further, if the historical accuracy of the book of Daniel is assumed and we line this up with the period of Ezekiel's ministry (see above) then there is every reason to believe that Daniel, especially given the high political office he held in the world's greatest super power, had well and truly established an international reputation for himself as a man of immense wisdom and integrity. A reputation, we might add, that was known as far afield as Tyre. The association of Daniel with Noah and Job is not to be explained as due to them all being [figures] of hoary antiquity[10] nor being all Gentiles, but to the fact that each of them lived through a time of great tragedy and in that very context shone as outstanding models of righteousness.

This brings us to Ezekiel's second reference to Daniel. For later in the book of Ezekiel Yahweh communicates to his prophet an oracle against the ruler of Tyre (28:1-26). At issue here are the arrogant pretensions of this ruler who treats himself as a god and, in particular, believes he has the wisdom of a god (vv1-2). To this Yahweh asks, Are you wiser than Daniel? Is no secret hidden from you?

This is a fascinating text because it indicates that Daniel was not merely someone well known by the Jewish people but was also famous internationally. In particular he was renowned for his wisdom and, implicitly, for being someone from whom no secret was hidden.

Some have contended that it is unlikely that Tyre would know of Daniel and that this text actually supports the view that Ezekiel is referring to a legendary figure. However, it is well known that the cities of the Phoenician coast, Sidon and Tyre, lay on the western end of the trade route used by both Assyria and Babylon. The resistance of Sidon and Tyre to Assyrian rule is recorded in royal inscriptions. Further we know that the Neo-Babylonian kings, Nebuchadnezzar II, Neriglassar and Nabonidus had dealings with both of these cities.[11] Indeed, from 585-572 BC Nebuchadnezzar sieged Tyre for 13 years. Following this the Tyrians accepted Babylonian authority, while remaining semi-independent. Consequently, if Daniel held the high political office ascribed to him in the book of Daniel then there are excellent grounds for believing that he was well known by the Tyrians.

Those who have a high regard for the historical integrity of the biblical text will find this is perfectly consistent with the explicit historical setting for Daniel's life provided by the book of Daniel itself. We can safely conclude that Daniel was a contemporary of Ezekiel and that it was during the period of Ezekiel's ministry that Daniel established such a superlative reputation for himself as a righteous and wise man.[12]

The liberal approach to the book has strange consequences. It is argued that the book of Daniel is pseudonymous but pseudonymous literature, for example, 1 Enoch, appropriates the name of a famous historical figure. If Daniel is a fictional character then why not use another name to give the book more authority?[13]

Those who refuse to accept the book at face value have proposed various alternate ghost writers for either the whole or part of the book: the Hasidim of the books of Maccabees (Plöger, Haag, Heaton), the cultic and wisdom circles of Jerusalem (Steck, Kratz), a priest or temple official (Lebram), a learned urban upper-class scribe (Lampe), wise men trained in mantic wisdom who returned from the Babylonian diaspora to Jerusalem (Collins[14]), etc.[15] However, if we treat the Book of Daniel itself as an historical source then we learn about Daniel, the primary author, that he was a Jewish noble whose life spans the period from approximately 605 BC to the mid 530s.

Yes, as the book shows, Daniel has a pronounced Jerusalem orientation. But this is far from supplying evidence that the author was based in Jerusalem.[16] Rather it presupposes the utter desolation of Jerusalem.[17] The book of Daniel expresses the devotion to Jerusalem and its temple of a Jew exiled to Babylon in 605 BC. As he longs and prays for restoration (Dan 9; cf. 6:10), he also expresses, as the primary writer, what an offence it is to him to see God's temple treated with disdain.

The book of Daniel concludes before the actual return from captivity, around 539 BC. But as Daniel awaits this return he does so as one who has genuinely received deeply disturbing revelations from God. God revealed to Daniel that the return would not bring an end to the sufferings of his people. Rather, the worst was yet to come. There would be further temple desecration and unprecedented expressions of anti-God, blasphemous human rule. Though Daniel cannot comprehend all that God has in store he is assured that God is in control of the entire course of history. He even understands that in a profound way God's sovereignty means that he himself orchestrates the chaos (e.g., 1:2; 7:2ff) and uses it to refine his people, the wise (11:33-25). He knows that the time will eventually come when all beastly human rule will be replaced by a thoroughly God-honouring human rule controlled by the supreme embodiment of all that humanity is supposed to be - the Son of Man - in concert with the vindicated saints of the Most High. This is the essential character and outlook of the author of this united work.

The Historical Context

In the 7th century BC the Aramean inhabitants of Mesopotamia viewed the Assyrians as their most dangerous enemy. Therefore, they championed the Babylonian cause against Assyrian domination and successfully led a liberation movement that resulted in the establishment of the Chaldean dynasty under Nabopolassar and his son, Nebuchadnezzar II.[18]

Nabopolassar began to revolt against Assyrian rule in 626 BC when Sinsharishkun was king of Assyria. Nabopolassar's name means Oh, Nabu, protect my son. As the Nabopolassar Cylinder[19] reveals, Nabopolassar regarded both Marduk and Nabu, the son of Marduk, as his patrons.[20] It was Nabopolassar who founded the Neo-Babylonian, that is, Chaldean empire, ruling it from 625-605 BC. He established his empire after conquering Assyria, though the Medes under Cyaxares had also been attacking Assyria, capturing Ashur, the religious centre of Assyria. It was under the ruined walls of Ashur that Nabopolassar and Cyaxares formed an alliance sealed by marriage between Nebuchadnezzar (Oh, Nabu, protect my offspring), Nabopolassar's son, and Amytis, Cyaxares' granddaughter. The Scythians joined the coalition and in 612 BC these three allies destroyed Nineveh, the administrative centre of Assyria, following a three month siege. Sinsharishkun was possibly killed at this time for he now disappears from the historical scene. At this point the Neo-Assyrian empire, which commenced in 911 BC, came to its end. The Neo-Babylonian empire that replaced it, the 11th Dynasty of Babylon[21], was of much shorter duration.

Following the fall of Nineveh the Assyrians, now led by Ashur-uballit II (possibly Sinsharishkun's brother), moved their capital to Harran. However, this too fell to the Babylonians in 609 BC and it is possible that Ashur-uballit himself was killed at this time. The Assyrians were thus forced to move their capital yet again, this time to Carchemish, an important city on the upper Euphrates.

Ashur-uballit had formed an alliance with Egypt in order to repel the Babylonian invaders. Prior to this, an earlier victory of Neco II of Egypt over the Assyrians at Carchemish, resulted in Egypt occupying the Phoenician provinces of the Neo-Assyrian empire. However, in 605 BC, Nebuchadnezzar defeated the Egyptians at the famous Battle of Carchemish. The Chaldean empire now controlled all Assyrian provinces, including the Phoenician ones.

It is worth noting that in the process of coming to Carchemish to meet the Babylonian threat, the Egyptian army was delayed at Megiddo by King Josiah. In the ensuing battle Josiah was killed and his army defeated. Still, delays like this meant that by the time the Egyptians got to Carchemish and joined their forces with those of the Assyrians they found themselves facing a Babylonian army that had had time to build its own formidable forces to full strength.

The Chaldean victory at Carchemish ensured Egypt would not block Babylonian access to the Mediterranean. Conquest and control of Judah was thus deemed a necessary part of ensuring a flourishing Babylonian economy.

Nabopolassar died in 605 BC while his son Nebuchadnezzar was leading the Chaldean army in Syria. On hearing the news Nebuchadnezzar speedily returned to Babylon to secure his power. The Medes and Scythians had withdrawn leaving most of the Assyrian empire for Nebuchadnezzar II (Nebuchadnezzar the Great) and his successors to rule. Like the Assyrians before him, Nebuchadnezzar made it an annual practice to send his army to each conquered territory to collect tribute. The Chaldean army would conquer and punish recalcitrant cities, as it did with Jerusalem in 597 and 586 BC.[22]

The book of Daniel is set early in Nebuchadnezzar's rule. Nebuchadnezzar was actually born about 630 BC and died around 562 BC at the age of 68. Nebuchadnezzar made Babylon the largest city of the world, a status it had once had before from around 1770 to 1670 BC and was now to have again until about 320 BC. Indeed, many believe that Babylon was the first city in the world to attain a population exceeding 200,000. According to estimates Babylon covered an area over 2,500 acres (10,000 hectares). The Euphrates River flowed through Babylon with the name of this great city symbolizing the entire empire.

In 601 BC the forces of Nebuchadnezzar and of Egypt's Pharaoh Neco clashed in an inconclusive battle with both sides suffering heavy losses. Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon to reorganize his army. Like many other states controlled by Babylon at this time, Jehoiakim committed a serious error of judgment, believing this turn of events indicated the time was right to rebel against Babylon with Egyptian assistance.[23] But Egyptian aid was not forthcoming (2 Kings 24:7). Babylon was poised to crush this revolt but Jehoiakim died in 598 BC, probably assassinated (cf. Jer 22:18f; 36:30), leaving his 18 year old son to face the Chaldean onslaught. After reigning for but three months Jehoiachin lost Jerusalem to the Babylonian army and he himself, along with other high officials and leading citizens, was taken to Babylon. Daniel had already been in Babylon for a number of years by this time.

2 Kings 24:10-17 describes what happened in 597 BC, when the temple was stripped of all its treasures and Nebuchadnezzar carried into exile all Jerusalem, including all the officers and fighting men, and all the craftsmen and artisans - a total of ten thousand, which included the entire force of seven thousand fighting men… and a thousand craftsmen and artisans. From Jeremiah 52:28 it would appear that an additional 3,023 prominent Jews were deported (presumably, a much greater number when women and children are included). We are informed: Only the poorest people of the land were left (2 Kings 24:14).

After Jehoiachin's removal Babylon appointed a Jew, Zedekiah, to represent Babylonian interests as the King of Judah. In 589 BC Pharaoh Apries mounted another attempted invasion of the Levant. Once again various states mistakenly believed the time was opportune to rebel against Babylon. Judah was one such state. Babylon decided it was time to prevent anything like this recurring and in 588 BC laid siege to Jerusalem, destroying both it and the