Nanoelectronics Devices: Design, Materials, and Applications (Part I)

By Gopal Rawat and Aniruddh Bahadur Yadav

Nanoelectronics Devices: Design, Materials, and Applications provides information about the progress of nanomaterial and nanoelectronic devices and their applications in diverse fields (including semiconductor electronics, biomedical engineering, energy production and agriculture). The book is divided into two parts. The editors have included a blend of basic and advanced information with references to current research. The book is intended as an update for researchers and industry professionals in the field of electronics and nanotechnology. It can also serve as a reference book for students taking advanced courses in electronics and technology. The editors have included MCQs for evaluating the readers’ understanding of the topics covered in the book.

Topics covered in Part 1 include basic knowledge on nanoelectronics with examples of testing different device parameters.
- The present, past, and future of nanoelectronics,
- An introduction to Nanoelectronics and applicability of Moore's law
- Transport of charge carrier, electrode, and measurement of device parameters
- Fermi level adjustment in junction less transistor,
- Non-polar devices and their simulation
- The negative capacitance in MOSFET devices
- Effect of electrode in the device operation
- Second and Sixth group semiconductors,
- FinFET principal and future, Electronics and optics integration for fast processing and data communication
- Batteryless photo detectors
- Solar cell fabrication and applications
- Van der Waals assembled nanomaterials


Audience
Researchers and industry professionals in the field of electronics and nanotechnology; students taking advanced courses in electronics and technology.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Bentham Science Publishers
• Release date: Sep 4, 2000
• ISBN: 9789815136623

Book preview

Role of Nanotechnology in Nanoelectronics

Jyoti Kandpal¹, *, Gopal Rawat²

¹ Department of ECE, Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India

² SMIEEE, School of Computing and Electrical Engineering(SCEE), Indian Instituteof Technology Mandi (IIT Mandi), Kamand-175075, Mandi,Himachal Pradesh, India

Abstract

Nanotechnology is concerned with creating and applying materials with nanoscale dimensions in various facets of life. Additional features have been introduced to the world of electronics due to advancements in nanotechnology. The development and cost-effective manufacturing of cutting-edge components that function quickly, use less power and can be packed at much higher densities is made possible by nanotechnology's new and unique features. There is a revolution in biotechnology, food, the military, and medicine using nanotechnology.

Keywords: BJT, CMOS, ENIAC, FinFET, MOSFETs.

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* Corresponding author Jyoti Kandpal: Department of ECE, Graphic Era Hill University Dehradun Uttarakhand, India; E-mail: [e-mail]

INTRODUCTION

Digital logic, which needs to offer a technology foundation for two different device types—high-performance logic and low-power/high-density logic—takes up a significant percentage of semiconductor device manufacture. Therefore, speed, power, density, price, capacity, and time to market are important factors for this technology platform. To preserve historical patterns of increasing device performance at lower power and cost while still operating in large volumes, the More Moore roadmap offers an enablement vision for further scaling of MOSFETs.

By European Nanoelectronics Initiative Advisory Council (ENIAC), the silicon-based micro or nanoelectronics industry can be analyzed utilizing three general categories as shown in Fig. (1) [1, 2].

Fig. (1))

ENIAC predication for microelectronics future.

1. Advanced CMOS (More Moore): To continue the downsizing of transistors, particularly in the improved use of metal gates with suitable work functions, high-k oxides, and high-k oxides as insulators, to ensure an effective throughput while decreasing the leakage via gate stack.

More Moore targets bringing PPAC value for node scaling every 2−3 years [3]:

(P)performance: >10% more operating frequency at scaled supply voltage.

(P)ower: >20% less energy per switching at a given performance.

(A)rea: >30% less chip area footprint.

(C)ost:<30% more wafer cost 15% less die cost for scaled die.

2. More than Moore: Modern CMOS technology has demonstrated itself as inherently constrained. Radiofrequency, analogue circuits, switches with high-voltage, actuators, and motion sensors are non-digital functions that call for a combination of technologies customized to a particular need. To overcome these obstacles and implement new features like mechanics, optics, acoustics, ferroelectrics, etc., more than Moore is needed.

The relevance of more-than-Moore devices, which combine performance, integration, and cost without being restricted to CMOS scaling, will continue to expand. These devices include MEMS, power electronics, CMOS image sensors, and R.F. devices. There are four standards more–than-Moore emphasizes [4].

System On a Chip (SoC)

System On a Package (SoP)

System In a Package (SIP)

Multiple Chip Module (MCM)

3. Beyond CMOS. New materials, whether inorganic or organic, are covered with new operating principles, such as those that replace electrons with magnetic excitation or spin and unique architectural designs. Examples of alternatives beyond CMOS include new materials for interconnects and transistors such as nanowires and carbon nanotubes, switches working with resistive change polymers for memories, the electronic properties of organic molecules, and memory and computing architectures to utilize the capabilities of these new devices fully.

The designing of electronic systems on a single chip requires optimum exploitation of system-on-chip devices, and it will be a vital component of the future of nanoelectronics, integrating More Moore and More than Moore with new heterogeneous integration technologies. Another advancement is system-in-package, which uses different optimized process technologies for combining multiple distinct sub-systems in a single package.

WHAT IS NANOSCALE?

The word nano originated from the Greek word Nanos, which means tiny, dwarf, or exceedingly small. As per the International Systems of Units, the prefix nano represents one billionth or 10-9. It means one nanometer is one billionth of a meter [4]. Fig. (2) shows the visual illustration example of nanoscale:

Fig. (2))

A Nanometric Scale.

WHAT IS NANOTECHNOLOGY?

Nanotechnology is a research branch exploring the potential for altering matter at the nanoscale to create new materials or cutting-edge gadgets that will serve human needs in various disciplines. Nanotechnology is also defined as the study of incredibly tiny objects and the applications in which they are employed.

Further, the study of materials that display extraordinary qualities, functions and phenomena due to their small dimensions is known as nanoscience. Nanoscience and nanotechnology focus on groups of atoms smaller than 1 nm, at least in one size. As a result, many goods appropriate to a wide range of scientific fields can be created using. Additionally, nanotechnology, which deals with material measuring less than 1 mm, is termed creation, exploitation, and synthesis.

Materials at the nanoscale are used in nanotechnology, which is still a relatively new field for researchers. However, commercial nanotechnology applications are overgrowing and can significantly advance humankind's ability to safeguard the environment. These technologies are applied in novel and intriguing ways in various industries, including producing computer chips, textiles, environmental cleanup, and medicine. Further, it is essential to emphasize that nanoscience and nanotechnology are not brand-new scientific discoveries. For instance, the development of immunology during the past 50 years has given rise to several new problems. With ongoing advancements, researchers were attracted to molecular biology and genomics, a branch of neuroscience and microtechnology. The current focus of nanotechnology is on materials with a size between 1 and 100 nm. Due to material advancements, researchers can manage the accuracy and precision of novel nanomaterials used at these sizes. Similarly, new uses made possible by distinct nanoscale phenomena were not possible while working with bulk materials made up of molecules or even a single atom [4-6].

HISTORY AND ADVANCEMENTS IN NANOTECHNOLOGY FIELD

Heinrich Rohrer is acknowledged as the originator of nanotechnology. However, American Nobel laureate and physicist Richard Feynman were the first to discuss its potential uses in 1959 at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). As a result, this region consolidated was promoted and came into its own in the twenty-first century. It encompasses other disciplines, such as molecular biology, organic chemistry and micro-manufacturing. Towards economic expansion of this sector and to gain profit, the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) invested more than 18 billion dollars in the U.S. between 2001 and 2022. Table 1 shows the development in the field of nanotechnology [7].

Table 1 Timeline showcasing the developments in the field of Nanotechnology [7].

CATEGORIES OF NANOMATERIAL

Based on their shape and size, nanomaterials are divided into four different categories - zero, one, two and three dimensions. How dimensions are used to categorize nanomaterials is explained in the subsequent paragraphs, and parameters are defined in Table 2 [6-9].

Table 2 Density of electrons in different degrees of freedom.

Where m* is the effective mass, Ec is energy of the conduction band, ħ is Planck constant, Nc is Electron density at the conduction band.

Zero-dimensional: The nanomaterial with all three dimensions in the nanoscale are termed zero-dimensional (0D) nanomaterials. N.P.s made of metals like palladium, gold, silver, platinum or quantum dots are examples. With a diameter of 1 to 50 nm, N.P.s can be spherical. It has been noted that some cube and polygon forms are 0D nanomaterials.

One-dimensional: These nanomaterials have three dimensions, with two being macroscale and one being in the range of 1-100 nm. One-dimensional nanomaterials (1D) include nanowires, nanotubes, nanofibers, and nanorods. In addition, quantum dots, metals like Ag, Au and Si, metal oxides such as TiO2, ZnO, CeO2 and other materials can produce one-dimensional nanostructures.

Two-dimensional: This class of nanomaterials has two dimensions at the nanoscale and one at the macroscale. Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials include nano-thin films, nanosheets, nano walls, and nanofilm multilayers. 2D nanomaterial can contain many square micrometres of surface area while having a thickness in the nanoscale range.

Three-dimensional: In three-dimensional (3D) nanomaterials, there are only macroscale and no nanoscale dimensions. Blocks, which can be as small as one nanometer or as large as one hundred nanometers or more, are the minor units that make up bulk materials, which are 3D nanomaterials.

Fig. (3) shows the density of electron states in bulk semiconductor structures in zero, one, two and three dimensions.

Fig. (3))

Representation of zero, one, two, and three-dimensional nanomaterials & variation of electron density in the semiconductor by changing the dimension [8-12].

Various techniques are available for nanomaterials in different forms like nanorods, nanowires, nanotubes, nanoclusters, thin films, colloidal N.P.s etc. In addition, nanomaterials can be made by modifying conventional techniques. A synthesis technique can be selected based on the type of the desired nanomaterial, its size and quantity.

APPROACHES IN NANOTECHNOLOGY AND FABRICATION

Different forms of nanotechnology exist depending on how they operate (top-down or bottom-up), and the media (dry or wet) used.

Proceed Based Approach

There are two main approaches to synthesizing nanostructured material: Top-down and Bottom-up, as shown in Fig. (4) [13].

Fig. (4))

Methods for the synthesis of nanostructures material.

Top-down Approach (A materials perspective - Larger to Smaller) By physically or chemically dissolving more extensive materials, one can produce nanoscale materials. As the size of the system shrinks, a variety of physical phenomena become more noticeable. Quantum mechanical effects are among them, as well as statistical mechanical effects. The nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS), linked to microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), can also be manufactured utilizing solid-state processes. Once MEMS could be produced utilizing modified semiconductor device production techniques, typically used to create electronics, they became viable.

Bottom-Up Approach (A molecular perspective - Simple to Complex) With advancements in synthetic chemistry, any structure can be created for tiny molecules. Today, many valuable compounds, including medicines and commercial polymers, are produced using these techniques. molecular nanotechnology, sometimes known as molecular manufacturing, refers to molecularly scaled constructed Nanosystems. Based on the principles of mech a synthesis, a molecular assembler can build the desired structure or gadget atom by atom.

Medium Based Approaches

Depending on the medium, nanotechnologies are divided into Wet, Dry and Computational categories [14, 15].

Organic things, including tissues, membranes, enzymes, and other cellular components, are related to wet nanotechnology.

The study of physical and the creation of materials like silicon and carbon (i.e., inorganic) are covered under dry nanotechnology.

Computational nanotechnology deals with simulations of structures having a size of a nanometer. For optimal functionality, wet, dry and computational technologies depend on each other. The dependency of the three nanotechnologies, as mentioned earlier, is shown in Fig. (5).

Fig. (5))

Different types of Nanotechnology based on different synthesis mediums.

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN NANOELECTRONICS

The study of procedures and material handling at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where a significant change in the properties takes place compared to a larger scale, is known as nanoscience. Nanotechnologies are the practical gadgets created by using nanoscience.

When we use nanotechnology in electronic components, it is referred to as Nanoelectronics. It has many uses in computing and producing electronic goods like iPod Nanos' Flash memory chips, mouse, keyboards and cell phone castings with antimicrobial and antibacterial coatings.

The main areas of study in nanoelectronics technology include classification, direction and synthesis of electronic components of nanoscale size. To overcome scalability restrictions, a nanoelectronics device is a tiny device. As a result, electronics' size, weight and power consumption may be reduced while their functionality is increased, according to Nanoelectronics [16, 17]. Although nanotechnology refers to the use of technology fewer than 100 nanometers in size, nanoelectronics frequently refers to tiny transistors; therefore, quantum mechanical properties and interatomic interactions must be thoroughly and in-depth explored. Options for nanoelectronics include enhanced molecular electronics, hybrid molecular/semiconductor electronics, silicon nanowires, and carbon nanotubes.

Nanoscience and Nanotechnology have a clear distinction. The first is related to the study of objects of size varying from 1 nm to 100 nm, at least in one dimension. However, Nanotechnology uses these tiny substances to fabricate products with some practical applications. Manipulation, regulation and integration of atoms and molecules are essential in developing materials, components, structures and devices at the nanoscale level. The inclusion of nanomaterials can improvise the materials used by industrial sectors. On the ground, the factor which will decide the utility of nanotechnologies for the industrial sector is cost versus added benefit [18-20].

Requirement of Nanotechnology in Electronics

Today microelectronics is used and resolves the utmost of problems. However, the exceptional disadvantages of microelectronics are:

We are optimizing electronic gadgets' displays. This helps make the screens lighter and thinner while also consuming less power.

Memory chip densities are being raised. For example, one terabyte of memory is expected to fit onto each square inch of a memory chip that scientists are currently working on designing.

In integrated circuits, transistors are shrunk. As a result, according to studies, the power of all today's computers might be placed in the palm of a hand.

Lower power usage.

Impact of Nanotechnology on Electronics

In this section, we will discuss the impact of nanotechnology on electronics:

Many communications, computers, and electronic applications make use of nanotechnology. These applications enable quicker, more compact, and more portable systems that can handle and store ever-increasing volumes of data. The purpose of nanoelectronics is to transmit, process and store information using characteristics of materials different from their macroscopic properties.

Nanotechnology is also utilized for printed electronics such as smart cards, RFID and smart packaging, video games and flexible displays for the readers of the e-book. In addition, nanotechnology has made high-speed and energy-efficient nanoscale transistors possible.

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) are nanostructured polymer films utilized in many present T.V.s, laptop computers, digital cameras, and cell phones. OLED screens consume less power and have a longer lifespan than traditional LCD screens.

Nanotechnology facilitates Magnetic Random-Access Memory (MRAM). This can quickly and effectively save the data, including encrypted data, in case of a shutdown or crash of a system.

Introducing nanomaterials, printable and flexible electronics, quantum computing, data storage, magnetic nanoparticles for data storage and nanotechnology in electronics enables faster, more accessible, smaller, and better handheld devices.

Several electronic devices, processes and applications, including nano diodes, nano transistors, plasma displays, OLEDs and quantum computers, can be transformed with nanotechnology.

The advent of nanotechnology in electronics has enhanced the functionality of devices due to improvements in the density of memory chips and decreasing the transistor size used in integrated circuits. As a result, electronic devices have reduced weight and consume less power.

Electronic devices with improved display screens using less power, lesser weight, and thinner screens are available.

Advantages of using Nanotechnology in Electronics

Electronics using nanotechnology are more portable, smaller, and faster. Nanoelectronics improves the density of memory chips, expands the functionality of electronic devices, and decreases power consumption and transistor size in integrated circuits. Nanotechnology is essential to communication engineering, has several uses, and can have a variety of effects on the telecommunications sector [21-23].

There are the following advantages which are listed below:

The density of the memory chip increased.

The thickness and weight of screens decreased.

Nanolithography is used for the fabrication.

Reducing the size of the transistor in integrated circuits.

Improvement in the display screen of electronic devices.

Reduction in power consumption.

NANOELECTRONICS DEVICES

The nanoelectronics devices and systems are producing emerging nanoelectronics devices and systems that will power the next generation of electronics. It includes vertically integrated activities ranging from incorporating functional materials into cutting-edge nanoelectronics devices to investigating fascinating applications in numerous fields. Such coordinated efforts may open the door to the Hyper-Scaling era of scaling.

Beyond the silicon CMOS device scaling roadmap: logic devices, the project's scope includes innovative nanoelectronics materials, such as graphene and carbon nanotube, novel nanoelectromechanical (NEM) relays concepts, device physics, modelling, and circuit design and device fabrication. Fig. (6) presents different types of Nanoelectronics devices.

Fig. (6))

Different types of nano electronics devices.

Nanoelectronics Transistors

While nanotechnology has already been subtly integrated into current high-technology production processes employing nanoelectronic transistors, these processes are still dependent on conventional top-down approaches. Computer processors could potentially become more potent with nanoelectronics than is currently conceivable with traditional semiconductor production methods. Numerous strategies are being investigated right now, such as novel types of nanolithography and the substitution of conventional CMOS components with nanomaterials like nanowires or tiny molecules [24].

Both heterostructured nanowires and semiconducting carbon nanotubes have been used to create field-effect transistors. The MOSFET transistor with an 18 nm diameter was tested in 1999 by a CMOS transistor designed at the Grenoble; a France-based Laboratory for Electronics and Information Technology. Appro- ximately 70 atoms were placed side by side in this design. The smallest industrial transistor in 2003 was almost ten times smaller than this (130 nm in 2003, 90 nm in 2004, 65 nm in 2005 and 45 nm in 2007). Theoretically, to fit seven billion connections on a coin of 1 Euro was made feasible. In 1999, the CMOS transistor was invented. It demonstrated the function of CMOS technology when operated on a molecular scale. Executing the same on an industrial scale and controlling the coordinated assembly of these transistors on a circuit have been challenging. Different device architecture is presented in the IRDS more Moore roadmap, as shown in Fig. (7) [3].

Fig. (7))

Evolution of device architectures in the IRDS More Moore roadmap [3].

Nano Memory (Spintronic)

The study of and application of magnetic moment and electric charge with electron spin in solid-state devices is known as spintronics.

Spintronics are electronic components that execute logic operations based on a carrier's spin and electrical charge. For instance, the spin-up or spin-down states of electrons could transfer or store information. The injection, transport, and detection of spin-polarized carriers are among the problems in this recent field of study. Current research includes the influence of the ferromagnetic-semiconductor interface's electrical structure and nanoscale structure on the spin injection process, the controlled creation of new ferromagnetic semiconductors and the potential application of nanostructured features to spin manipulation [25].

By the IRDS 2022 stacking structure of 3D DRAM cell, the stacking design of 3D Flash technology is used. In the 2022 report is stated that 96 staked layers are already in volume production, and 128 layers are achievable.

FeRAM is used for radio frequency identification (RFID), Smart cards, ID cards, and other embedded applications. Recently HfO2 based ferroelectric field effect transistor (FET) memory element has been used for low power and fast switching [3]. Spin transfer torque magnetic RAM (STT-MRAM) is used for low-power IoT applications.

Nano-Sensors

Numerous products, exciting disciplines and uses for photonic sensors are made possible by nanotechnology. Existing applications can be improved, such as digital cameras view accommodation of more pixels on a sensor compared to what is currently possible. Additionally, sensors can be created at the nanoscale, improving their quality and possibly eliminating defects. Ultimately, this would lead to larger, more precise pictures. A communication network will use photonic sensors to transform optical data into electricity (i.e., photons to electrons transformation). Photonic sensors made at the nanoscale will be more effective and benefit from the same advantages as other nanoscale materials [26, 27].

PROGRESS IN THE FIELD OF NANOELECTRONICS

Significant developments are happening in the field of nanoelectronics each day. Details of a few projects/ developments are as follows:

1. The University of Michigan has developed a method for growing hexagonal boron nitride in single layers atop graphene. This technique may provide extremely thin graphene wafer-level sheets, insulated by very thin boron nitride, since the latter can be utilized as an insulator.

2. Harvard researchers used nanofabrication techniques to create a laser for lithium niobate photonic circuits.

3. In comparison to other designs of a similar size, NIST researchers have built a Light Emitting Diode (LED) with fin-like zinc oxide nanostructures. The scientists also found that the above structure emits laser light to increase the current.

4. CMOS integrated circuits with the integration of silicon nanophotonics components. A higher rate of speed for data transmission between integrated circuits can be achieved by utilizing this optical technique.

5. Scholars at UC Berkeley presented a low-power method to use nanomagnets as switches like transistors in electrical circuits. It is feasible that this power consumption in electrical circuits can be lowered than in transistor-based circuits.

6. Scholars at Georgia Tech, the University of Tokyo and Microsoft Research have devised a methodology wherein standard inkjet printers print prototype circuit boards. The conductive lines of the circuit boards are made with Silver nanoparticle ink.

7. The Caltech researchers have developed a nanopatterned silicon surface used in a laser. It produces light with significantly better frequency control than existing ones. Using this, information transmission across fibre optics would happen at considerably faster data speeds.

8. They are creating carbon nanotube transistors to enable a few nanometers minimum transistor size and developing methods to produce integrated circuits containing nanotube transistors.

9. Stanford University researchers have designed a technique for producing functional integrated circuits utilizing carbon nanotubes.

10. Lead-free solder has been developed using copper nanoparticles for space missions and other high-stress conditions.

11. Production of more slim and flexible flat panel displays than existing ones by utilizing electrodes composed of nanowires.

12. Using semiconductor nanowires, transistors and integrated circuits are designed.

13. An innovative technique for creating graphene P.N. junctions, a crucial part of transistors, has been devised by researchers. First, the p and n areas of the substrate were patterned. Then, electrons were either supplied or removed from the graphene, depending on the mechanism in which the substrate was doped when the graphene layer was deposited. According to the researchers, the disturbance of the graphene lattice that can happen with other approaches is reduced by this method.

14. Nanoparticle Organic Memory Field-Effect Transistor (NOMFET) transistors are produced by combining an organic compound with nanoparticles of gold.

15. It is creating a thin, millimetre-thick nano emissive display panel that is lightweight by using carbon nanotubes. It directs the electrons toward illuminating pixels.

16. Construct integrated circuits with nanometer-scale characteristics, such as the method used to create integrated circuits with transistor gates 22 nm wide.

17. Magnetoresistive Random-Access Memory is created using magnetic rings with a nanoscale (MRAM).

18. Researchers developed a magnetoelectric random access memory technique that uses nanoscale magnets to produce lower power and higher density (MeRAM).

19. They are making nanoscale integrated circuits with self-aligned nanostructures.

20. Construction of transistors without p-n junctions using nanowire.

21. With the help of bucket balls, dense and low-power memory systems are constructed.

22. Spintronic semiconductor devices were developed by using magnetic quantum dots. Contrary to current semiconductor devices, which measure electronics groups, spintronic devices evaluate the spin of electronics to decide a 1 or 0. Therefore, these are considered to have higher density and lesser power consumption.

23. Construction of compact memory devices by using nanowires made of iron-nickel alloyed. Magnetized sections are developed along the wire's length by applying a current. As magnetic portions move across the wire length, the data is read by sensors. This technique is termed Racetrack Memory.

24. IMEC and Nantero are designing a memory chip made of carbon nanotubes. This is termed Nanotube-based Nonvolatile Random-Access Memory (NRAM) and is aimed to replace compact Flash memory chips.

25. Researchers have developed organic nano glue. This creates a nanometer-thick coating between a computer chip and a heat sink. The research findings show that applying this nano glue increases the thermal conductivity between the components above. This helps maintain the temperature of other features, such as chips.

APPLICATION OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

The applications of Nanotechnology are vast and can be grouped as shown in Fig. (8).

Fig. (8))

Application of nanotechnology.

Nano Medicines

The use of nanotechnology in medicine is called Nanomedicine. Though nanomedicine is in its starting phase, revolutionary changes in the healthcare sector are anticipated utilizing it. Public investment has significantly assisted the advancement of nanomedical research. The emerging developments in this field can provide advantages such as enhanced efficacy, bioavailability, dose-response, targeting capability, personalization, and safety over existing medications. One of the most remarkable ideas in nanomedical research is the construction of multifunctional nanoparticle (N.P.) complexes; these may simultaneously carry diagnostic and therapeutic chemicals to desired areas. The main objective of nanotechnology in this field is to observe and improvise the human biological systems working from the molecular level. Details of a few nanotechnology-based drugs that are commercially available or in human clinical trials are tabulated in Table 3 [28-30].

Table 3 Nanotechnology-based Drug [31].

Nanotechnology Applications in Nanomedicine

Fig. (9) shows applications of Nanotechnology in Nanomedicine.

Fig. (9))

Application of nano medicine.

Benefits

Nanomedicine has various benefits such as reduced side effects, better efficiency, simple and fast detection of diseases and easy cure without surgery.

Nano Biotechnology

The interdisciplinary field of nanotechnology covers advancements in Engine- ering, Chemistry, Biology and Physics. The intersection of nanotechnology and biology is termed nanobiotechnology. It is crucial for developing molecular electronics, food processing and medicine. Therapeutic and diagnostic applications are the two categories of nanotechnology applications in nanobiotechnology [32, 33].

Nano-biotechnology, which is valuable for numerous applications, especially in healthcare and pharmaceuticals, places a lot of emphasis on creating objects and biological systems at the atomic level. The development of nanotechnology depends on freshly made nanomaterials, which dominate all fields due to their distinctive features. In industries such as drug delivery, diagnostics, cosmetics, tissue engineering, and agriculture, including biological components with nanoparticles is crucial. Many nanomaterials are influencing the nano- biotechnology industries of agriculture, tissue engineering, and medicine, as shown in Figs. (10 and 11).

Fig. (10))

Combined application of nanotech with biotech [32].

Fig. (11))

Application of nano biotechnology.

Also, there are following challenges occur when biotechnology combines with nanotechnology:

1. Monitored exposure to Nano Materials.

2. Applicable Method Development.

3. Predict the effects of nanomaterial.

4. Health impact of nanomaterial.

5. Measure the risk of health.

Applications of Nanotechnology in Warfare

Nanotechnology's implementation in warfare is a specific subfield or branch of nanoscience. This field deals with developing molecular systems constructed and built to be nanoscale compatible. It has facilitated the design of various nano-weapons across wide-ranging categories such as miniature robotic robots, hyper-reactive explosives and super electromagnetic materials. In addition, chemical warfare agents such as choking agents, nerve and blood agents and incapacitating agents have also been developed.

The recent military nanotechnological weapon research focuses on developing defensive military equipment to improve extant designs of light, resilient and flexible materials. By using sensors and manipulating electromechanical qualities, these state-of-the-art systems have elements that work for the betterment of offensive tactics as well. In the past 20 years, nations like China, U.K., Russia and the U.S. have swiftly supported this technology for military use during the last 20 years [34, 35].

The application of Nanotechnology in the field of the military is covered in the following paragraphs:

Nanotechnologies can enhance efficiency across all industry sectors through innovative technology solutions and improved production technologies. As a result, it will influence the production of renewable energy economically. In Fig. (12), the energy industry's value chain is impacted by developments in nanotech- nology [36, 37].

Fig. (12))

Implémentation of Nanotechnology in the Energy Industry [36].

Contribution of Nanotechnology to the Food Sector

The food industry has changed because of nanotechnology, which has gained popularity over the past few decades. Researchers are driven to investigate ways to improve food quality while having the least possible impact on the product's nutritional value by the growing customer concerns about food quality and health advantages. Since many nanoparticle-based products include vital nutrients and are non-toxic, their demand has surged in the food business. Nanotechnology offers total food solutions, from production to processing and packaging. Nanomaterials significantly improve food quality and safety as well as the health benefits that food offers. Fig. (13) presents the application of Nanotechnology in the food industry [38-43].

Fig. (13))

Role of nanotechnology in the food industry [39].

Environmental Restoration

One of the most demanding jobs is employing nanotechnology to minimize environmental degradation, identify solutions to current environmental issues, protect our environment from further deterioration, and contribute to sustainable development. For example, soil, groundwater, air, and surface contamination can be treated, remedied, monitored in real-time, and detected using nanotechnology [44, 45].

In the following section, we have discussed different applications:

1. Energy Efficiency can be improved with the utilization of Nanotechnology. It can assist in the detection of pollutants and their elimination.

2. Researchers have designed a molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) membrane, which filters water 2-5 times more than conventional filters. This is a tool for energy-effective desalination. Further, the chemical methods that can make these pollutants harmless are underway to reduce the effect of industrial pollutants on the groundwater. This would be cheaper than treating polluted water after taking it from the earth's surface. Thus, clean drinking water can be made accessible by treating water impurities using fast and cheaper screening methods.

3. For use in cleanup applications, the researchers created a paper towel using microscopic wires of potassium manganese oxide as nano fabric. This paper towel can absorb a good amount of oil, approximately twenty times its weight. In addition, magnetic and water-repellent nanoparticles are also used to remove fat from water mechanically in oil spill areas.

4. Many filter cartridges fixed in aircraft cabins and other air purification systems are also based on nanotechnology. These systems enable mechanical filtration in which the fibre material's nanoscale pores catch particles more significantly than the pores. Layers of charcoal that absorb odours could also be present in the filters.

5. With more sensitivity than ever, sensors and solutions made possible by nanotechnology can detect and indicate the chemical and biological material present in the air and soil. For different types of toxic site remediation, scientists are examining particles of Self-Assembled Monolayers on Mesoporous Supports, carbon nanotubes and dendrimers to ascertain the employability of their distinctive physical and chemical features. In addition, NASA has created another sensor for firefighters to utilize as a smartphone add-on to monitor the air quality near flames.

FUTURE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

Currently, the possibilities in the field of nanotechnology can be seen in a favourable position. This sector is undoubtedly expected to grow worldwide due to technological advancements, government backing, investment from the private sector and increasing demand for smaller / compact devices/ equipment. Nevertheless, the environmental, safety and health risks and apprehensions related to its commercialization may limit the market expansion for nanotechnology.

The countries leading the nanotechnology industry in 2024 include the U.S., Brazil, Germany, and Asian countries like China, India, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia and Taiwan. The leading sectors in the future would be Electronics and Energy, followed by the cosmetics sector, and nanotechnology would contribute majorly to the former's advancement, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4 Projected Power and Performance scaling of SoC [3].