The Nano-Micro Interface: Bridging the Micro and Nano Worlds

By Marcel Van de Voorde and Matthias Werner

Controlling the properties of materials by modifying their composition and by manipulating the arrangement of atoms and molecules is a dream that can be achieved by nanotechnology. As one of the fastest developing and innovative -- as well as well-funded -- fields in science, nanotechnology has already significantly changed the research landscape in chemistry, materials science, and physics, with numerous applications in consumer products, such as sunscreens and water-repellent clothes. It is also thanks to this multidisciplinary field that flat panel displays, highly efficient solar cells, and new biological imaging techniques have become reality.

This second, enlarged edition has been fully updated to address the rapid progress made within this field in recent years. Internationally recognized experts provide comprehensive, first-hand information, resulting in an overview of the entire nano-micro world. In so doing, they cover aspects of funding and commercialization, the manufacture and future applications of nanomaterials, the fundamentals of nanostructures leading to macroscale objects as well as the ongoing miniaturization toward the nanoscale domain. Along the way, the authors explain the effects occurring at the nanoscale and the nanotechnological characterization techniques. An additional topic on the role of nanotechnology in energy and mobility covers the challenge of developing materials and devices, such as electrodes and membrane materials for fuel cells and catalysts for sustainable transportation. Also new to this edition are the latest figures for funding, investments, and commercialization prospects, as well as recent research programs and organizations.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Wiley
• Release date: Jan 12, 2015
• ISBN: 9783527679218

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Edited by

Marcel Van de Voorde, Matthias Werner, and Hans-Jörg Fecht

The Nano-Micro Interface

Bridging the Micro and Nano Worlds

Volume 1

Second Edition

Wiley Logo

Edited by

Marcel Van de Voorde, Matthias Werner, and Hans-Jörg Fecht

The Nano-Micro Interface

Bridging the Micro and Nano Worlds

Volume 2

Second Edition

Wiley Logo

Editors

Prof. Marcel Van de Voorde

TU Delft

Fac. Techn. Natuurwetenschappen

Eeuwige Laan, 33

1861 CL Bergen

The Netherlands

Dr. Matthias Werner

NMTC

Soorstr. 86

14050 Berlin

Germany

Prof. Hans-Jörg Fecht

University of Ulm

Inst. Micro & Nanomaterials

Albert-Einstein-Allee 47

89081 Ulm

Germany

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Foreword

Curiosity-driven fundamental research is part of human culture, the benefit of which is improved knowledge and understanding of phenomena, behavior, processes, and organic and inorganic matter. An integral part of curiosity is raising the question on intelligent and sustainable use of the knowledge, for example, for improving the quality of life. Society not only tolerates but also favors and finances research work; not forever, as at a certain point, the proof of usefulness of new results and dedicated innovation becomes evident. Fantasy and imagination have to be followed by innovation with market potential, economic benefit, and creation of working places.

The fascination of nanoscience has been based on curiosity. An unexploited body of phenomena, matter, and behavior offered almost unlimited development for fantasy and imagination. For most fields of human needs like housing, daily water and food, health, communication, mobility, and power providing comfort for life nanoscience principally offers great potential for advanced solutions.

The potential is based on some of the main characteristics of nanoscience and nanotechnology: small mass and volume (a small number of atoms and molecules) per material unit with a high ratio of atoms/molecules of different behavior at surfaces, a very large number of material units to be built together with new architecture (architectonics*), potentially interface-dominated stringent space limitations for electric charges, and consequences on electric, magnetic, and optic behavior of building blocks. The great potential for innovation offered by nanoscience and nanotechnology is evident. As a matter of fact, for the last decades, nanoscience and nanotechnology has been a university and research center topic to a large extent. Nano-Industry is still in its infancy: nano-Electronics and nano-Chemistry are already on the way of industrialization, nano-Health and nano-Biotech made a good start, and nano-Structural materials have still to find their way and need to be promoted.

Nano-Industrialization needs development of fabrication and manufacturing. Top-down approaches based on continuous tailoring and miniaturization from the microscale as well as bottom-up approaches based on assembling nanoscale units or new collective phenomena based on nanoscale effects need to be developed for the production of new sustainable and safe devices in industrial quantities.

This book is an important and early contribution to the development of nano-Manufacturing. It provides some directions for nano-Industry developments in the near future, especially for nano-Electronics and nano-IT, nano-Power and nano-Health, it describes examples with successful industrialization, and shows visions for the future in Europe, United States, and Asia.

Tsukuba

Louis Schlapbach

April 2014

Prof. em. ETH/Empa, Scientist at NIMS Tsukuba

Acknowledgement

The editors gratefully acknowledge the technical support of H. Faisst, C. Kotlowski and Dr. K. Bruehne of the ULM (D) University, Nanomaterials Institute, as well as various technical contributions and academic editing by Professor M. E. Fitzpatrick, Executive Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, Coventry University, UK. The generous support by the EUREKA programme through the research cluster Metallurgy Europe is gratefully acknowledged.

List of Contributors

Sharifah Bee Abd Hamid

University of Malaysia

Nanotechnology & Catalysis Research Centre (NANOCAT)

Malaysia

Santos F. Alvarado

ETH Zürich

Magetism and Interphase Physics

HPP N22

Hönggerbergring 64

Zürich

Switzerland

Andreas Baar

Innos-Sperlich GmbH

Bürgerstraße 44/42

D-37073 Göttingen

Germany

Gerd Bachmann

VDI Technologiezentrum GmbH

Innovation Management and Consultancy

VDI-Platz 1

Düsseldorf

Germany

Marie-Isabelle Baraton

University of Limoges and CNRS

SPCTS Centre Europ. de la Céramique

rue Atlantis

Limoges Cedex

France

Leif Brand

VDI Technologiezentrum GmbH

Innovation Management and Consultancy

VDI-Platz 1

Düsseldorf

Germany

Stefan Braun

Fraunhofer Institut für Werkstoff- und Strahltechnik

Winterbergstraße 28

Dresden

Germany

Hans Peter Buchkremer

Forschungszentrum Jülich

Institute for Energy and Climate Research (IEK)

IEK-1: Materials Synthesis and Processing

Jülich

Germany

Francisca G. Caballero

National Center for Metallurgical Research (CENIM-CSIC)

Physical Metallurgy Department

Av Gregorio del Amo, 8

E-28040 Madrid

Spain

Philippe C. Cattin

University of Basel

Department Biomedical Engineering

Spitalstrasse 21

Basel

Switzerland

Alison Crossley

University of Oxford

Department of Materials

Begbroke Science Park

Begbroke Hill

Oxford OX5 1PF

UK

Sitaram Dash

Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR)

Kalpakkam

603 102 Tamil Nadu

India

Gilbert Declerck

imec

Kapeldreef 75

Leuven

Belgium

Raffaele Di Giacomo

Salerno University

Department of Industrial Engineering (DIIn)

Via Giovanni Paolo II 132

Fisciano (SA)

Italy

Jakub Dostalek

AITAustrian Institute of Technology

Donau-City-Straße 1

Wien

Austria

Uwe Erb

University of Toronto

Department of Materials Science and Engineering

Wallberg Building

College Street 184 (Suite 140)

Toronto, ON M5S 3E4

Canada

Wolfgang R. Fahrner

Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science

Fernuniversitaet Hagen

Universitaetsstrasse 1

Hagen

Germany

Andreas Falk

BioNanoNet Forschungsgesellschaft mbH

Graz

Austria

Hans-Jörg Fecht

University of Ulm

Institute of Micro and Nanomaterials

Albert-Einstein-Allee 47

Ulm

Germany

Michael E. Fitzpatrick

Coventry University

Faculty of Engineering and Computing

Priory Street

Coventry CV1 5FB

UK

Andreas Franz

Zoz Group

Maltoz-Straße

57482 Wenden

Germany

Thomas Fries

Fries Research & Technology GmbH

Friedrich-Ebert-Straße

51429 Bergisch Gladbach

Germany

Birgit Funk

Zoz Group

Maltoz-Straße

57482 Wenden

Germany

Julia R. Greer

California Institute of Technology

Division of Engineering and Applied Science

309-81

California Blvd. 1200 E.

Pasadenam, CA 91125

USA

Sonja Hartl

BioNanoNet Forschungsgesellschaft mbH

Graz

Austria

Simone E. Hieber

University of Basel

Biomaterials Science Center

c/o University Hospital Basel

Basel

Switzerland

Jean-François Hochepied

MINES ParisTech

PSL Research University

Centre for Materials Sciences

CNRS UMR 7633

BP 87 91003 Evry

France

and

ENSTA ParisTech

UCP, 828 Bd des Maréchaux

Palaiseau cedex

France

Yasuhiro Horiike

University of Tsukuba

Department of Graduate School of Pure and Applied Science

Tennodai 1-1-1

Tsukuba

3058571 Ibaraki

Japan

Jörg Huwyler

University of Basel

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Division of Pharmaceutical Technology

Klingelbergstrasse 50

Basel

Switzerland

Vili Igel

NMTC

Nano & Micro Technology Consulting

Soorstraße 86

Reichsstr 6

Berlin

Germany

Colin Johnston

University of Oxford

Department of Materials

Begbroke Science Park

Begbroke Hill

Oxford OX5 1PF

UK

Marcin Jurewicz

Bialystok University of Technology

Faculty of Management

Bialystok

Poland

U Kamachi Mudali

Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR)

Kalpakkam

603 102 Tamil Nadu

India

Olga Kammona

Chemical Process & Energy Resources Institute

Centre for Research and Technology Hellas

P.O Box 60361

Thessaloniki

Greece

Amal Kasry

AITAustrian Institute of Technology

Donau-City-Straße 1

Wien

Austria

Costas Kiparissides

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki

Department of Chemical Engineering

P.O Box 472

Thessaloniki

Greece

Wolfgang Knoll

AITAustrian Institute of Technology

Donau-City-Straße 1

Wien

Austria

Neelie Kroes

European Commission

Vice-President and Commissioner for the Digital Agenda

Rue de la loi 200

B-1049 Bruxelles

Belgium

Martin Kulawski

Oy Advaplan Inc.

Alakartanontie 6 A 17

Espoo

Finland

Golden Kumar

Texas Tech University

Texas

USA

Giovanni Landi

Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science

Fernuniversitaet Hagen

Universitaetsstrasse 1

Hagen

Germany

Seok-Woo Lee

California Institute of Technology

Division of Engineering and Applied Science

309-81

California Blvd. 1200 E.

Pasadenam, CA 91125

USA

Andreas Leson

Fraunhofer Institut für Werkstoff- und Strahltechnik

Winterbergstraße 28

Dresden

Germany

Lerwen Liu

NanoGlobe Pte Ltd

Battery Road 4

Bank of China Building #25-01

Singapore

Singapore

Witold Łojkowski

Bialystok university of Technology

Faculty of management

ojca tarasiuka 2

16-001 kleosin

Poland

Iwona Malka

Polish Academy of Sciences

Institute of High Pressure Physics

Warsaw

Poland

Stefan Mende

NETZSCH-Feinmahltechnik GmbH

Sedanstraße 70

P.O Box 14 60

Selb

Germany

Jyrki Molarius

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland

Microsystems and Nanoelectronics

Tietotie 3

Espoo

Finland

Bert Müller

University of Basel

Biomaterials Science Center

c/o University Hospital Basel

Basel

Switzerland

Peter Müller

IBM Zurich Research Laboratory

Säumerstrasse 4

Rüschlikon

Switzerland

Heinz C. Neitzert

Salerno University

Department of Industrial Engineering (DIIn)

Via Giovanni Paolo II 132

Fisciano (SA)

Italy

Gino Palumbo

Integran Technologies Inc.

Northam Dr

Mississauga

ON L4V 1H7

Canada

Thomas Pfohl

University of Basel

Department of Chemistry

Klingelbergstrasse 80

CH-4056 Basel

Switzerland

John Philip

Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR)

Kalpakkam

603 102 Tamil Nadu

India

Jan Provoost

imec

Kapeldreef 75

Leuven

Belgium

Xunlin Qiu

University of Potsdam

Faculty of Science

Institute of Physics and Astronomy, Applied Condensed Matter Physics

Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24/25

Potsdam

Germany

Baldev Raj

National Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS)

Bengaluru

560012 Karnataka

India

Tommi Riekkinen

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland

Microsystems and Nanoelectronics

Tietotie 3

Espoo

Finland

Laura Rossi

IBM Zurich Research Laboratory

Säumerstrasse 4

Rüschlikon

Switzerland

Dmitry Rychkov

University of Potsdam

Faculty of Science

Institute of Physics and Astronomy, Applied Condensed Matter Physics

Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24/25

Potsdam

Germany

Robert Schlögl

Abteilung Anorganische Chemie

Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft

Faradayweg 4-6

Berlin

Germany

Torsten Schmidt

GXC Coatings GmbH

Im Schleeke 27-31

D-38642 Goslar

Germany

Jan Schroers

Yale University

Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science

Becton Center 217

Prospect Street 15

New Haven, CT 06520

USA

Joanna Sobczyk

Institute of High Pressure Physics

Polish Academy of Sciences

Warsaw

Poland

Andrei P. Sommer

Institute of Micro and Nanomaterials

University of Ulm

Albert-Einstein-Allee 47

Ulm

Germany

Anna widerska- roda

Institute of High Pressure Physics

Polish Academy of Sciences

Sokolowska

29/37, 01-142 Warsaw

Poland

Nadine Teusler

Innos-Sperlich GmbH

Bürgerstraße 44/42

D-37073 Göttingen

Germany

Reinhard Trettin

Institute for Building and Materials Chemistry

University of Siegen

Paul-Bonatz Str. 9-11

57076 Siegen

Germany

Marcel H. Van de Voorde

University of Technology DELFT

Faculty of Applied Science

Materials and Engineering Department

Eeuwigelaan, 33

CL, Bergen

The Netherlands

Tim Van Gestel

Forschungszentrum Jülich

Institute for Energy and Climate Research (IEK)

IEK-1: Materials Synthesis and Processing

Jülich

Germany

Diederik Verkest

imec

Kapeldreef 75

Leuven

Belgium

Jared J. Victor

University of Toronto

Department of Materials Science and Engineering

Wallberg Building

College Street 184 (Suite 140)

Toronto, ON M5S 3E4

Canada

Martin A. Walter

Institute of Nuclear Medicine

University Hospital Bern

Freiburgstrasse 4

Bern

Switzerland

Matthias Werner

NMTC

Reichsstr. 6

Berlin

Germany

Matthias Wiora

Institute of Micro and Nanomaterials

University of Ulm

Albert-Einstein-Allee 47

Ulm

Germany

Werner Wirges

University of Potsdam

Faculty of Science

Institute of Physics and Astronomy, Applied Condensed Matter Physics

Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24/25

Potsdam

Germany

Wolfgang Wondrak

Daimler AG

Power Electronics Advanced Engineering

Hanns-Klemm-Straße 45

Böblingen

Germany

Deniz Yigit

Zoz Group

Maltoz-Straße

57482 Wenden

Germany

Markku Ylilammi

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland

Microsystems and Nanoelectronics

Tietotie 3

Espoo

Finland

Henning Zoz

Zoz Group

Maltoz-Straße

57482 Wenden

Germany

Andreas Zumbuehl

University of Fribourg

Department of Chemistry

Chemin du Musée 9

Fribourg

Switzerland

The Nano–Micro Interface: Bridging the Micro and Nano Worlds

Marcel H. Van de Voorde, Matthias Werner, and Hans J. Fecht

1 Introduction

This book is about bridging the gap between nanoscience and technology, microsystem engineering, and the macroscale world. The interface between micro- and nanoscale technologies becomes a key field of endeavor.

The first edition of this book, published in 2004, dated from an international workshop in 2003 in Berlin, Germany, and highlighted these emerging technology trends through contributions from 25 authors representing international research groups. The first edition was rather successful, but there have been many advances in the last 10 years that require an upgraded and extended second edition.

In the new edition, featuring 6 parts and about 30 chapters, we have expanded the scope and coverage, as well as updated the book to cover recent developments and innovations. The book maintains the theme of addressing the interface between micro- and nanotechnology, with a strong focus on benefits that arise from exploiting synergy effects. The book's contributions cover the entire range of basic technology aspects with special emphasis on industrial manufacturing of nanotechnology products and on potential applications. Moreover, business activities such as market expectations and market growth, transnational networking, and investment opportunities are highlighted and explained. Nanotechnology is gaining more and more interest also in the financial community. More than $US 3 billion is being spent around the globe on nanotechnology research this year alone. Recently published articles concerning possible future applications of nanotechnology predict a big commercial impact on nearly any industry branch. However, only very limited information is available on the market situation today as well as on the future prospects and the time-to-market span for nanotechnology products. How likely is the predicted huge impact on the global economy? What does that mean for established and start-up companies?

2 Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is a loosely applied term, often understood as a kind of ultimate miniaturization of high-tech devices. But in fact, it does not refer simply to objects whose dimensions are entirely in the nanometer range; rather, it can be applied generally to refer to

functional objects where one of the dimensions, upon which the function relies, is less than 100 nm. Some dimensions of the objects may lie in the microscale or above;

any equipment used in the fabrication or measurement of nanoscale objects, including those where the function relies on a feature or features with dimension less than 100 nm.

Most fundamental physical properties change if the geometric size in at least one dimension is reduced to a critical value below 100 nm, depending on the material. This allows tuning of the physical properties of a macroscopic material, if the material is fabricated from nanoscale building blocks with controlled size and composition. By altering the sizes of those building blocks, controlling their internal and surface chemistry, their atomic structure, and their assembly, it is possible to engineer properties and functionalities in completely new ways.

Nanoparticles and nanomaterials exhibit radically different phenomena and behaviors compared to their macroscale counterparts. These include quantum effects, statistical time variations (fluctuations) of properties, surface and interface interactions, and the consequences of the absence of defects in the nanocrystals observed in conventional crystalline materials. Nanoparticles and nanomaterials have unique mechanical, electronic, magnetic, optical, and chemical properties, opening the door to enormous new possibilities for engineered nanostructures and integrated nanodevice designs, with application opportunities in information and communications, biotechnology and medicine, photonics, and electronics. Examples include developments in ultrahigh-density data storage, molecular electronics, quantum dots, spintronics, and others. Atomic or molecular units, with their well-known subatomic structure, offer the ultimate building blocks for bottom-up, atom-by-atom synthesis and, in some cases, self-assembly manufacturing. Advanced nanostructured materials such as high-purity single-wall carbon nanotubes are being considered for microelectronics, sensors, and thermal management for micro- and optoelectronics, including flat panel displays. The latest developments in nanobiotechnology clear the way to revolutionary cancer diagnosis and treatment, bone repair, and tissue regeneration.

3 Nano-Industry is Arriving

The new nanotechnologies are driven by two approaches to their manufacture:

top-down approaches based on continuous miniaturization from the microscale;

bottom-up approaches based on nanoscale building blocks or nanoscale effects for the production of new devices.

As nanotechnologies become increasingly embedded in products and processes, their integration with the microscale will be critically important. This has many challenges both in understanding the fundamental scientific principles that underlie the integration, and also in the industrial realization of components that exploit nanoscale phenomena.

The extrapolation of engineering principles and mechanical and physical properties from the macroscale to the nanoscale is not straightforward: some scaling laws may reach their limit of validity, for instance in mechanical properties of ceramics due to the drastic change in properties during the transition from the macro to nano phases. Similarly, manufacturing techniques and methodologies for macromaterials and components cannot be simply extrapolated for the fabrication of nanocomponents. For example, nanofabrication requires to some extent expensive clean rooms, new expertise, and new techniques for quality control during manufacturing. As a consequence, companies will not be able to use their existing production lines for newly developed nanoscale technologies. New measurement techniques and newly developed standards for engineering processes will be needed, alongside novel methods for lifetime prediction and the assurance of reliability in use.

Mass-production demands reliable and reproducible properties for materials and products. This means good control in manufacturing, with in situ measurements for quality control. Methods are needed for joining materials and components at the nanoscale, and the assessment of properties such as fatigue, creep, and corrosion in volumes that are minute compared to conventional testing requirements. There is a critical role for developments in nanomeasurement techniques for nanotechnology products and applications, underlined by the increasing involvement of metrological institutes in the new field of nanometrology. Standardization of nanotechnology from production to application is an important element in its fundamental engineering development, and these elements are covered within this book. In addition, standardization will be critical in tackling societal issues around nanotoxicology and other concerns frequently associated with rapidly growing new technologies.

Nanotechnologies are subject to the same requirements as any of the systems that they integrate or replace, in terms of performance, safety, risk management, economy, and biocompatibility.

Nanotechnology gives the potential for the creation of new products, but also the possibility to upgrade conventional technologies: an example presented in the book is the application of nanoconcrete in bridge construction. Because of the impacts on existing applications, there is the opportunity for industries in Europe and the United States to recapture global markets in well-established fields, such as steel and textiles, for example, by the development and application of advanced nanotechnologies.

4 Applications and Markets

Many consumers are already unknowingly using products based on nanotechnology. A case in point is high-performance sun protection cream, based on nanocrystalline titanium dioxide that provides UV absorption but, because of the fine particle size, does not appear white on the skin. Another example is the Giant Magneto Resistive Effect (GMR), used in computer hard disk drives. The current high storage densities may only be obtained through the use of nanotechnologies.

The breadth of applications, and the potential contribution of nanotechnologies, is shown in Figure 1.

nfg001

Figure 1 An overview of the potential applications of nanotechnology.

5 Research and Development

European industry is a world leader in nanotechnology, alongside the United States and Japan, as it becomes evident by the number of patents and scientific publications. Although there are many advantages for industry in the development and application of nanomaterials and components, production costs are considerably high, particularly initially, and products often require more intensive quality control. As a consequence, the added value brought by nanotechnology must be very significant in terms of improved or new properties and functionalities. This book highlights the competitive advantages that will be available to companies that invest in nanotechnologies.

The performance of microsystems depends on the understanding of the properties on both the nano- and microscales. In the words of the Review Committee of the National Nanotechnology Initiative in the United States: Revolutionary change will come from integrating molecular and nanoscale components into high order structures … To achieve improvements over today's systems, chemical and biologically assembled machines must combine the best features of the top-down and bottom-up approaches.

This requires extensive research, building upon current knowledge, and practice. The research needs to move from demonstration of nanoscale possibilities to the development of new ways of working in manufacturing.

There is a particular challenge for small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs). They can benefit greatly from new technologies, but often cannot afford the research and development costs. New models of partnership between SMEs and major industrial players, academic, and national laboratories are required. SMEs in the future will play a key role in the industrialization of nanotechnology because of their flexibility.

6 The Infinite Space at the Bottom and the Tremendous Opportunities to Climb Up

Figure 2a illustrates schematically the tremendous opportunities nanotechnology offers for engineering and improving the performance of materials, systems, and devices, as well as for scientists on fundamental grounds searching for unexpected effects. In Figure 2, materials engineering, with support of materials science, seeks to optimize materials properties by varying the materials' chemical composition, phase structure, and microstructure (e.g., dislocations, grain boundaries, phase boundaries, point defects density, and arrangement). Figure 2b shows the great opportunities offered by new degrees of freedom in shaping properties of matter. Further, nanoarchitectures and nano-micro architectures combine the nano-micro building blocks into microsystem technologies. The new degrees of freedom produced through combining multiple effects at the nanoscale gives a vastly increased range of potential properties than was available before the nanotechnology era. When considering the further step of the combination of nano-sized pieces of material (nano-building blocks) and micro-sized materials into nano-micro systems (the art of doing this can be called nano-micro architecture) the new space for discoveries and applications becomes very large indeed.

nfg002

Figure 2 (a) Materials science and engineering optimize materials properties, by varying materials' chemical composition, phase structure, microstructure (e.g., dislocations, grain boundaries, phase boundaries, point defects, etc.) density, and arrangement. (Image courtesy W. Lojkowski, Unipress, Poland.) (b) Nanotechnology exploits in addition to microstructure and chemical composition the effect of size and shape of matter on its properties. Further, nanoarchitecture and nano-micro architecture combines the nano-micro building blocks into nano-micro systems.

(Image courtesy W. Lojkowski, Unipress, Poland.)

nfg003

Figure 3 The 8 parts of the book and the subsequent 33 chapters.

The new, virtually infinite space of parameters that can be tuned to control material properties opens up opportunities for new discoveries, particularly to solve key societal needs: supply of energy without irreparable damage to the environment, delivering clean water, radically improving the efficiency of medical treatments, supporting developing countries to improve quality of life, and accelerating economic growth in technologically advanced countries. Thus an exponentially growing, new space for research and development is opening for humanity that holds great promise for all citizens of the globe.

7 The Second Edition, 2014

This second edition maintains the theme of addressing the interface between micro- and nanotechnology, with a strong focus on the benefits that arise from exploiting synergy effects. The book's contributions cover the entire range of basic technology aspects with the goal of developing new and improved applications. Moreover, business aspects such as potential markets, roadmaps, transnational networking, and investment opportunities are highlighted and explained.

The book comprises eight parts and is subdivided into 33 chapters.

PART I represents an overview of the state-of-the-art in commercializing nanotechnology, with particular case studies of the strategies being implemented in Germany and Japan. It highlights the global research efforts and gives a summary of the engineering and manufacturing developments, as well as the key markets.

PART II features the main classes of materials – metals, ceramics, and polymers – and how nanotechnology can in each case have benefits for properties and applications. Novel materials such as bulk metallic glasses are also considered.

Part III looks at the integration of nanoelectronics devices into larger systems, with examples of carbon nanotubes, piezomaterials, and ferroelectrets, and how there will need to be collaboration in the future between technology and design.

Part IV looks at applications in biomedical technologies and nanomedicine. Bioactivation, biomimicry, and biofunctionality are all critical properties for the development of transformative applications in medicine, including diagnostics, drug delivery, and regenerative treatments.

Part V covers energy and mobility applications. For transport applications, nanomaterials can have impact in areas as diverse as catalysis for exhaust treatments to nanoelectronics for vehicle sensing and improvements in fuel efficiency.

Part VI covers process control and analytical techniques, specifically characterization techniques, surface chemical analysis, and interface studies, and gives guidelines for their application in industrial manufacturing.

Part VII is devoted to creative strategies connecting nanomaterials to the macro world and gives insights into the engineering challenges of manufacturing at the nano- to macrolength scales, and shows cases in the development of production technologies for nanomaterials and components. The standardization of nanomaterials will be essential both for manufacturing and marketing purposes. The part gives examples of successful developments of large-scale production technologies for nanoproducts, including novel techniques such as grinding.

PART VIII concludes the book with a vision for the future of nanomaterials, through industrialization and large-scale production of components.

References

1 .Roco, M. et al. (2010) Nanotechnology Research Directions for Societal Needs in 2020, Springer, Heidelberg.

Part I

Nanotechnology Research Funding and Commercialization Prospects – Political, Social, and Economic Context for the Science and Application of Nanotechnology

1

A European Strategy for Micro- and Nanoelectronic Components and Systems¹

Neelie Kroes

1.1 Introduction

Micro- and nanoelectronic components and systems² are not only essential to digital products and services, but they also underpin innovation and competitiveness of all major economic sectors. Today's cars, planes, and trains are safer, more energy-efficient, and comfortable thanks to their electronic parts. The same holds for large sectors like medical and health equipment, home appliances, energy networks, and security systems. This is why micro- and nanoelectronics is a Key-Enabling Technology (KET) [1] and is essential for growth and jobs in the European Union (EU).

This communication sets out a strategy to strengthen the competitiveness and growth capacity of the micro- and nanoelectronics industry in Europe. In line with the updated industrial policy [2], the aim is for Europe to stay at the forefront in the design and manufacturing of these technologies and to provide benefits across the economy.

The strategy spans policy instruments at regional, national, and EU level including financial support for research, development, and innovation (R&D&I), access to capital investment (CAPEX) as well as the improvement and better use of relevant legislation. The strategy builds on Europe's strengths³ and on regional clusters of excellence. It covers the whole value chain from material and equipment manufacturing to design and volume production of micro- and nanoelectronics components and systems.

The importance of the area and the challenges faced by the stakeholders in the EU require urgent and bold actions in order to leave no weak link in Europe's innovation and value chains. The focus is on:

attracting and channelling investments in support of a European roadmap for industrial leadership in micro- and nanoelectronics;

setting up an EU-level mechanism to combine and focus support to micro- and nanoelectronics R&D&I by member states, the EU, and the private sector;

taking measures to strengthen Europe's competitiveness towards a global-level-playing field regarding state aid, to support business development and SMEs, and to address the skills gap.

1.2 Why are Micro- and Nanoelectronics Essential for Europe?

1.2.1 An Important Industry with a Significant Potential for Growth and a Massive Economic Footprint

Micro- and nanoelectronics underpin a significant part of the worldwide economy. Their role will continue to grow as future products and services will become more digital, as illustrated below.

The global turnover of the sector alone was around €230 billion in 2012 [3]. The value of products comprising micro- and nanoelectronic components represents around €1600 billion of value worldwide.

Despite the recent financial and economic setbacks, the worldwide market for micro- and nanoelectronics has grown by 5% per year since 2000. Further growth of at least the same magnitude is predicted for the remaining part of the current decade.

The pace of innovation in the field is one of the main drivers behind the high growth rates of the whole digital sector which today has a total value of around €3000 billion worldwide [4].

In Europe, micro- and nanoelectronics is responsible for 200 000 direct and more than 1 000 000 indirect jobs [5] and the demand for skills is unceasing.

The impact of micro- and nanoelectronics on the whole economy is estimated at 10% of the worldwide GDP [6].

1.2.2 A Key Technology for Addressing the Societal Challenges

Micro- and nanoelectronics are not only the computing power in PCs and mobile devices. They fulfill also the sensing and actuating functions⁴ found for example in smart meters and smart grids for lower energy consumption, or in implants and sophisticated medical equipment for better health care and for helping the elderly population. They are also the building blocks for better security, for the safety and efficiency of the whole transport systems, and for environmental monitoring.

Today no societal challenge can be successfully met without electronics.

1.3 A Changing Industrial Landscape for Micro- and Nanoelectronics

1.3.1 Technology Progress Opens New Opportunities

Two main tracks characterize technology development and drive business transformation. A first track progresses the miniaturization of components at the nanoscale along an international roadmap for technology development established by industry [7]. This is the more Moore track aiming at higher performance, lower costs, and less energy consumption.⁵

A second track aims at diversifying the functions of a chip by integrating microscale elements such as power transistors and electromechanical switches. This is referred to as the more than Moore track. This track is at the basis of innovations in many important fields such as energy-efficient buildings, smart cities, and intelligent transport systems.

In addition, totally new, disruptive technologies and architectures are being researched. This is often referred to as the beyond CMOS⁶ track. It requires multidisciplinary research, deep understanding of physics and chemistry and excellence in engineering.

Furthermore, in order to lower production costs, industry increases also step by step the size of the material support⁷ for producing micro- and nanoelectronics. Massive investments in R&D&I and CAPEX are required for such transitions in manufacturing standards.

1.3.2 Escalating R&D&I Costs and a More Competitive R&D&I Environment

Further miniaturization implies escalating costs for R&D&I and CAPEX. The R&D&I intensity of the micro- and nanoelectronics industry increased from 11% in 2000 to 17% in 2009 [8]. This trend appears to continue. Such high investments can only be sustained by volume production.

Consolidation in the industry is ongoing. This could lead to a situation where only a few actors are left worldwide and perhaps none in Europe. It is estimated that a 10% share of the worldwide market is needed for a semiconductor company to sustain the investment to keep up with technology development.

As a result, global alliances between companies are formed, for example the New York-based IBM alliance on 300-mm wafer technology and the Global 450 Consortium focusing on the transition to 450-mm wafers. In Europe, the next-generation technology development is centered on leading research centers such as LETI,⁸ Fraunhofer,⁹ and imec¹⁰ working in close cooperation with industrial players. Research itself is increasingly becoming global with the emergence of Asia as the home of patent holders and a skilled workforce.

1.3.3 New Business and Production Models

The micro- and nanoelectronics industrial landscape is changing drastically with a significant shift of volume production to Asia in the last 15 years.¹¹ Overall, production in Europe has dropped to just less than 10% of world production in 2011. Despite the strengths of US companies in the field, only 16% of production is made in the US.

With the increased cost of setting up production facilities (fabs), the granting by territorial authorities of financial incentives has become an important element in the decision where to build new capacity. Tax breaks, land, cheap energy, and other incentives play a major role as does the availability of skilled labor force [9].

Another important trend is the rise of the foundry model.¹² Foundries developed strongly in Asia and represent already around 10% of the worldwide electronic component production. In conjunction, there are an increasing number of fabless companies¹³ that generate income from selling chip designs. Without production, these fabless companies have not the high financial overheads of the manufacturing companies.

Secure access to production capacity may however become problematic in the future as foundries extend their offer to include design and prototyping which would give them an insight into the end products. To minimize the risk, some companies doing own designs keep limited production lines in-house (the so-called fab-lite model).

1.3.4 Equipment Manufacturers Own Key Elements of the Value Chain

Without progress in production equipment, advances in further miniaturization and increased functionality of chips are not possible. Equipment manufacturers have become a key part of the value chain which is reflected in their prominent role in the international technology alliances.

1.4 Europe's Strengths and Weaknesses

1.4.1 Industry Structured around Centers of Excellence and Wider Supply Chains Covering all Europe

Similar to the rest of the world, Europe's micro- and nanoelectronics industry is concentrated around major regional production and design sites. The regions around Dresden (DE), Grenoble (FR), and Eindhoven-Leuven (NL-BE) host three main research and production centers with increased specialization in one of the three areas of more Moore, more than Moore, and equipment and materials. In addition, the region of Dublin (IE) hosts a large European manufacturing site of microprocessors, and Cambridge (UK), for example, is home to the leading company in the design of low power consumption microprocessors that equip most of today's mobile devices and tablets.

This clustering and regional specialization is essential for the future development of the sector. However, it relies on a wide supply chain spread across Europe. This includes relatively smaller but highly innovative and specialized clusters such as the regions of Graz and Vienna (AT), Milan and Catania (IT), or Helsinki (FI).

Europe counts three large indigenous micro- and nanoelectronics companies ranking 8th (STMicroelectronics), 10th (Infineon), and 12th (NXP) in worldwide sales in 2012. Europe also attracted some major overseas companies that invest in Europe (e.g., GlobalFoundries and Intel). Micro- and nanoelectronics manufacturing in Europe is further served by a very competitive and extended value chain and ecosystem of companies, including many SMEs. The main manufacturing sites are embedded in the regional clusters as mentioned above.

1.4.2 Leading in Essential Vertical Markets, Almost Absent in Some Large Segments

Europe is relatively absent in the production of computer and consumer-related components that represent a large part of the total market. It is leading though in electronics for automotive (∼50% of global production), for energy applications (∼40%) and industrial automation (∼35%). Europe is also still strong in designing electronics for mobile telecommunications.

European companies, including a large number of SMEs, are world leaders in smart micro-systems like health implants and sensing technologies. Although these are currently niche markets, they are areas of high growth (typically more than 10% per year). Another key asset is the European leadership in the high growth market of low power consumption components.

1.4.3 Undisputed European Leadership in Materials and Equipment

Europe has some of the most important equipment and materials suppliers including, for example, ASML and SOITEC that hold significant shares of the relevant world market. These companies rely on many suppliers established throughout Europe, many of them SMEs. These European equipment and material suppliers uniquely master highly sophisticated technologies ranging from optics and lasers to precision mechanics and chemistry. Their role in progressing the micro- and nanoelectronics area is significant and well acknowledged as for example illustrated by the recent strategic investment of major semiconductor companies in ASML.¹⁴

1.4.4 Investments of EU Companies Remain Relatively Modest

Although in absolute terms investments by European companies are high (in the order of billions of euros), they remain relatively modest compared to investments made elsewhere. Europe's business attractiveness nevertheless remains high given the size of its consumption which is above 20% of the world market. But future investments in electronics manufacturing in Europe are not guaranteed. Competition with other regions in the world is stiff.

Public investment in R&D&I and policies to attract private investment remains highly fragmented across the EU despite the progress made in the last 5 years. This sharply contrasts with the fact that European R&D&I in micro- and nanoelectronics is world-class and very attractive to international players.

1.5 European Efforts so Far

1.5.1 Regional and National Efforts Reinforcing the Clusters of Excellence

Important efforts, notably over the last 15 years, have been devoted at regional level to build industrial and technology clusters in the area. The most successful clusters are the result of long-term sustained strategies that combine policies such as tax incentives, investment in R&D&I in public labs, intensive industry–academia cooperation, world-class infrastructures, critical coverage of the value chain and a dynamic business environment. The availability of skills and knowledge is equally of major importance for the field.

With the challenges ahead including the increasing costs of R&D&I, the fierce worldwide competition and the erosion of some key parts of the value chain in Europe (e.g., the stage of packaging components into systems), much closer collaboration along value chains and in innovation ecosystems at EU level is a must.

1.5.2 A Growing and More Coordinated Investment in R&D&I at EU Level

Investment in R&D&I in micro- and nanoelectronics is part of the EU programmes for research and development since their inception. The EUREKA programme also has a large research cluster on micro- and nanoelectronics [10].

After 10 years of stagnation of EU support to R&D&I in the field,¹⁵ a gradual increase of around 20% per year started in 2011 leading to a budget of more than €200 million in 2013. In order to focus the R&D&I efforts and build critical mass, the commission, member states, and private stakeholders together launched, in 2008, a public–private partnership in the form of a Joint Undertaking¹⁶ (ENIAC JU). By the end of 2013, the ENIAC JU will have invested both from the public and private sides more than €2 billion on R&D&I in addition to around €1 billion invested in micro- and nanoelectronics in the Seventh Framework Programme.

1.5.3 Technology Breakthroughs but Gaps in the Innovation Chain

The focus in the EU R&D&I support is on preparing for the next two generations of technologies [11]. Through these programmes, industry kept pace with the state-of-the-art developments in further miniaturization. Also through these programmes, sophisticated smart systems were developed that today are deployed for example in cars or health systems.

However, the EU R&D&I programmes so far supported the early phases of the innovation process, that is validating the technologies up to a laboratory level.¹⁷ The logic was to leave the next steps getting closer to the final product up to industry, given the high level of investment these require. This led to clear gaps in the innovation chain. To be effective and cross the so-called valley of death, support to research and innovation in the field needs increasingly to address the whole innovation chain spreading beyond any one company, region, or member state.

The ENIAC JU called recently for manufacturing pilot lines addressing particularly these higher scales of technological maturity. The strong interest demonstrated by the private stakeholders and the public authorities to support these pilot lines shows their strategic importance.

1.6 The Way Forward – A European Industrial Strategy

The proposed strategy builds on the European initiative on KETs and on the HORIZON 2020 [12] proposal for R&D&I. It focuses though on the actions that are specific for the challenges faced in micro- and nanoelectronics.

1.6.1 Objective: Reverse the Decline of EU's Share of World's Supply

Europe cannot afford to lose the capacity to design and manufacture micro- and nanoelectronics. This would put large parts of the value chains of major industrial sectors at risk and deprive Europe of essential technologies needed to address its societal challenges.

Given the wide range of opportunities ahead and the challenges industry is facing, it is now urgent to step up and coordinate all relevant public efforts across Europe. An industrial strategy should ensure return to growth and reach, in a decade, a level of production in the EU that is closer to its share of world GDP. In detail, the aims are to:

Ensure the availability of micro- and nanoelectronics that are needed for the competitiveness of key industries in Europe.

Attract higher investment in advanced manufacturing in Europe and reinforce industrial competitiveness across the value chain from design to manufacturing.

Maintain leadership in equipment and material supply and in areas such as more than Moore and energy-efficient components.

Build leadership in the design of chips in high growth markets, notably in the design of complex components.

1.6.2 Focus on Europe's Strengths, Build on and Reinforce Europe's Leading Clusters

As indicated above, Europe's assets in micro- and nanoelectronics include an excellent academic research community and industrial leadership in vertical markets. Moreover, when considering Europe as a whole, there is an industrial and technology presence across the full value chain including equipment, material, manufacturing, design as well as strong end-user industry.

Building on these strengths and mobilizing the resources needed should make Europe a major player in micro- and nanoelectronics. Mobilizing resources will need alignment of actions at regional, national, and European level. This will build confidence and stimulate the renewal and growth of manufacturing capability in Europe.

Emphasis is on reinforcing and building on the excellence of research and technology organizations (RTOs) in terms of facilities and staff. They should be the places to be for talented engineers and researchers in the field, at the center of ecosystems to attract private investments in manufacturing and design. In order to maximize return on investment and ensure excellence, further progress towards complementary specialization and stronger cooperation between the main RTOs will be a key for success in line with the smart specialization strategy [13] of the EU.

To ensure the further uptake of electronics in all industrial sectors and seize the opportunities arising from cross-disciplinary work, closer cross-border and cross-sector collaborations including end-user industries should be reinforced.

1.6.3 Seize Opportunities Arising in Non-conventional Fields and Support SMEs Growth

SMEs play a key role in emerging areas like plastic and organic electronics, smart integrated systems, and in general in the field of design. An important goal therefore is to better integrate SMEs in value chains, and provide them with access to state-of-the-art technologies and R&D&I facilities. Support to centers of excellence that help embed micro- and nanoelectronics in all types of products and services will be essential to spur innovation across the economy and mainly in non-technology SMEs.

EU-wide partnerships between end-user industries, public authorities, and suppliers (large and small) of micro- and nanoelectronics will help open up new high growth areas like electric vehicles, energy-efficient buildings and smart cities, and all types of mobile web services.

1.7 The Actions

1.7.1 Towards a European Strategic Roadmap for Investment in the Field

The aim is to attract higher public and private investments and channel these to implement a roadmap for leadership to be established by industry.

The level of public and private investment will match the size of the challenge. The intention is to bring the total public and private investment in R&D&I at EU, national, and regional level to more than [€1.5 billion] per year, that is, a total budget of more than [€10 billion] over 7 years.

To this end the Commission will pursue the dialogue with stakeholders and set up an Electronics Leaders Group to elaborate and help implement a European Industrial Strategic Roadmap that will build on Europe's strengths and cover three complementary lines:

The development of the More than Moore technology track on wafer sizes of 200 and 300 mm. This will enable Europe to maintain and expand its leadership¹⁸ in a market that represents roughly €60 billion per year and has a 13% yearly growth. It will have a direct impact on high-value jobs creation including notably in SMEs.

The further progression of More Moore technologies for ultimate miniaturization on wafer sizes of 300 mm. The investment should enable Europe to gradually increase production in this market that represents more than €200 billion.¹⁹

The development of new manufacturing technology on 450-mm wafers. The investment will initially benefit equipment and material manufacturers in Europe who are today world leaders on a market of around €40 billion per year and will provide a clear competitive edge to the whole industry, in a 5–10 years range.

The roadmap will be established at the latest by the end of 2013 as a set of concrete actions reinforcing notably Europe's clusters of excellence in manufacturing and design (see Section 4.1) and ensuring openness to partnerships and alliances across the value chain. The actions of the public sector, European Commission, member states, and regional authorities will consist of:

Supporting R&D&I through institutional funding or grants to actions driven by the roadmap. Focused and coordinated interventions²⁰ generating critical mass and maximizing return on investment will be mobilized.

Developing, in partnership with industry and in support to innovation, an advanced manufacturing and piloting infrastructure to bridge the gap in the innovation chain and connect design with actual deployment.

Facilitating access to financing CAPEX through loans and equities, notably regional funds and the innovation schemes of the European Investment Bank (EIB). In this context, the European Commission signed in February 2013 a Memorandum of Understanding with the EIB signalling KETs as a priority for investments.

The commission will prepare the ground for industry to team up along the value chain and to develop and regularly update the roadmap. Member states, regional authorities, and the European Commission will support the roadmap individually and/or collectively including through a Joint Technology Initiative (JTI) and the EUREKA initiative. It will ensure the best use of regional Structural Funds including through smart specialization between the target clusters and the use of financial instruments foreseen under European Structural Investment Funds (ESI Funds) [13]

Industry will engage in maintaining and expanding design and manufacturing activities in Europe and will regularly update the roadmap with the help of RTOs and the academic community in order to keep it up to date with the dynamics of market and technology developments.

1.7.2 The Joint Technology Initiative: A Tripartite Model for Large-Scale Projects

The European Commission will propose a JTI²¹ based on Article 187 TFEU that combines resources at project level in support of cross-border industry–academia collaborative R&D&I. The proposal for a Council Regulation to establish a JU will replace the two existing JU on embedded computing systems (ARTEMIS) and nanoelectronics (ENIAC) that were set up under the Seventh Framework Programme. Within HORIZON 2020 under the Leadership in Enabling and Industrial Technologies challenge, the new JTI will cover three main interrelated areas:

Design technologies, manufacturing processes and integration, equipment, and materials for micro- and nanoelectronics.

Processes, methods, tools and platforms, reference designs, and architectures for embedded/cyber-physical systems.

Multidisciplinary approaches for smart systems.

The new JTI will build on lessons learned from the current JTIs [14] and provide a simplified funding structure. It will mainly support capital-intensive actions²² such as pilot lines or large-scale demonstrators at higher technology readiness level up to level 8 as shown above. These will require a tripartite funding model involving the European Commission, member states, and industry and will help align relevant investment strategies across Europe. The implementation will follow the principles of HORIZON 2020 and will be consistent with the cross-cutting KETs work programme to strengthen cross-fertilization between the different KETs.

Support to the JTI will be complemented with EU funding for technological R&D and for innovation actions targeting notably SMEs. This will cover R&D&I in new areas of micro- and nanoelectronics (see Section 6.3), including those requiring the combination of several KETs such as advanced materials, industrial biotechnology, photonics, nanotechnology, and advanced manufacturing systems [15].

Within the new JTI the commission will furthermore explore how to simplify and accelerate state aid approvals including through a Project of Common European Interest according to Article 107.3(b) of TFEU.

1.7.3 Building on and Supporting Horizontal Competitiveness Measures

The access to a highly skilled workforce of engineers and technicians and to high quality graduates is essential for attracting private investments in electronics. Similar to the whole ICT sector, micro- and nanoelectronics is suffering from an increasing skills gap and a mismatch between supply and demand of skills. The commission will continue to promote digital competences for industry through the e-Skills initiative and has recently launched the Grand Coalition for ICT skills and jobs. For micro- and nanoelectronics the engagement of industry to attract the young generation early in its education is critical. In addition to industrial efforts and relevant initiatives at regional and national levels, the commission will continue to cofinance in HORIZON 2020 projects to develop and disseminate training and teaching materials on the latest technology in micro- and nanoelectronics as well as support awareness campaigns targeting young entrepreneurs.

In addition, the European Commission is putting in place an EU Skills Panorama with updated forecasts of skills supply and labor market needs up to 2020, to improve transparency for Skills, Competences, and Occupations classification (ESCO), as a shared interface between the worlds of employment, education and training and to support mobility.

Together with RTOs, universities and national and regional authorities, the commission will seek to make shared facilities and services for testing and early experimentation of micro- and nanoelectronics technologies available to start-ups, SME's, and users across Europe.

Furthermore through public procurement of innovations that are driven by micro- and nanoelectronics such as health or security equipment better conditions for market developments in these fields will be created.

1.7.4 International Dimension

The European Commission will promote international cooperation in micro- and nanoelectronics especially in areas of mutual benefit such as international technology road-mapping, benchmarking, standardization, health and safety issues linked to nanomaterials [16], and preparing the transition to 450-mm wafer size, or advanced research in beyond CMOS.

The European Commission will continue its efforts to move towards a more transparent and global-level-playing field in international multi- and bilateral fora by limiting trade/market distortions and to support industry in sectorial trade negotiations and in relevant issues demanding an international debate such as the problem of nonpracticing entities (NPEs).

1.8 Conclusions

As it has done in strategic fields such as aeronautics or space, Europe has no other choice but to engage in an ambitious industrial strategy for micro- and nanoelectronics. This communication proposes such a strategy that is based on a European roadmap for the field. It supports smart regional specialization and promotes close cooperation along the value and innovation chains.

The EU, national, and regional financial resources in this field have to be aligned in order to reach the critical mass needed to attract investments and the world best talents. Financial resources will be concentrated on Europe's leading clusters. The further development of these will enable the whole European businesses, wherever located, to exploit the latest developments in micro- and nanoelectronics. The action plan in Annex 1.A summarizes what should be done.

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Figure 1.1 Moore's law and more.

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Figure 1.2 Relation between the intensity of investment versus industrial implementation.

Annex 1.A

1 European Commission (23 May 2013), COM(2013) 298, official publication at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2013:0298:FIN:EN:PDF.

2 Referred to as micro- and nanoelectronics in this communication, it spans from nanoscale transistors to microscale systems integrating multiple functions on a chip.

3 For example, electronics for cars, energy, and manufacturing sectors.

4 A sensor is any device, such as a thermometer, that detects a physical condition in the world. Actuators are devices, such as switches, that perform actions such as turning things on or off or making adjustments in an operational system.

5 Moore's Law: doubling performance to cost ratio every 18–24 months.

6 Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) is the standard technology for integrated circuits in the ‘more Moore’ track.

7 Micro- and nanoelectronics chips are produced on round material supports called ‘wafers’. Successive technology generations are identified by the diameter size of the wafers on which they are produced. Today production is mainly done on 200 and 300 mm wafers. The next wafer size will be 450 mm.

8 LETI is an institute of CEA, a French research-and-technology organization. It specializes in nanotechnologies and their applications, from wireless devices, to biology, health care, and photonics (http://www-leti.cea.fr).

9 The German Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft undertakes applied research of direct utility to private and public enterprise and of wide benefit to society. Several institutes are focusing on integrated circuits and systems (http://www.fraunhofer.de).

10 Belgian IMEC performs world-leading research in nanoelectronics, leveraging scientific knowledge with global partnerships in ICT, health care, and energy (http://www.imec.be).

11 For example, capital expenditure of Korean companies increased from 13% in 2005 to 27% in 2012.

12 A foundry is a company owning factories and offering manufacturing services to ‘fables’ customers.

13 A fables company designs its own components but outsources their manufacturing to a service provider (the ‘foundry’).

14 See http://www.asml.com/asml/show.do?ctx=5869&rid=46974 – ‘As part of the program, Intel, TSMC, and Samsung will each acquire ASML shares, equal to an aggregate 23% minority equity stake in ASML for EUR 3.85 billion in cash’.

15 At ∼€130 million per year.

16 Based on Article 187 TFEU.

17 Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs) are used to assess the maturity of evolving technologies. Levels 1–4 typically refer to early R&D while levels 5–8 indicate prototyping and actual system validation in an operational environment.

18 Currently, production in Europe in this track is more than 30% of the world value.

19 Europe's share of production is around 9%, but Europe is still at the leading edge of technology in the miniaturization race.

20 From regional-, national-, and EU-level programmes.

21 The impact of the proposal will be presented in the impact assessment. The budgetary impact will be included in the legislative and financial statement.

22 Currently, public support to pilot lines in ENIAC JU is between €50 and €120 million per action.

References

1. European Commision (2012) (COM(2012) 341 final A European Strategy for Key Enabling Technologies – A Bridge to Growth and Jobs.

2. European Commision (2012) COM(2012) 582 final ‘A Stronger European Industry for Growth and Economic Recovery’.

3. World Semiconductor Trade Statistics (WSTS) (2012) http://www.wsts.org/ (accessed 22 May 2014).

4. IDATE (2012) Digiworld Report, http://www.idate.org (accessed 22 May 2014).

5. EC http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/ict/files/kets/hlg_report_final_en.pdf (accessed 22 May 2014).

6. ESIA See European Semiconductor Industry Association (ESIA) Competitiveness Report, 2008 Mastering Innovation Shaping the Future, http://www.eeca.eu/images/static_website/newsroom/publications/ESIA_Broch_CompReport_Total.pdf

7. International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) http://www.itrs.net (accessed 22 May 2014).

8. OECD Information Technology Outlook http://www.oecd.org/internet/ieconomy/oecdinformationtechnologyoutlook2010.htm (accessed 22 May 2014).

9. See Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA) (2009) Maintaining America's Competitive Edge: Government Policies Affecting Semiconductor Industry R&D and Manufacturing Activity, March 2009, http://www.semiconductors.org/clientuploads/directory/DocumentSIA/Research%20and%20Technology/Competitiveness_White_Paper.pdf (accessed 22 May 2014).

10. CATRENE http://www.catrene.org/ (accessed 22 May 2014).

11. Along the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) http://www.itrs.net/ (accessed 22 May 2014).

12. European Commision (2011) COM(2011) 809 final Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL establishing Horizon 2020 -The Framework Programme for Research and Innovation (2014–2020).

13. EC http://s3platform.jrc.ec.europa.eu/home (accessed 22 May 2014).

14. EC First Interim Evaluation of the ARTEMIS and ENIAC Joint Technology Initiatives, 2010, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/information_society/evaluation/rtd/jti/artemis_and_eniac_evaluation_report_final.pdf (accessed 22 May 2014).

15. European Commision (2012) See COM(2012) 582 final Section III.A.1.ii).

16. European Commision (2012) COM(2012) 572 final: Second Regulatory Review on Nanomaterials.

2

Governmental Strategy for the Support of Nanotechnology in Germany

Gerd Bachmann and Leif Brand

2.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology is a term which encompasses highly interdisciplinary approaches of the sciences, for example in the field of electronics, optics, life sciences, and materials science, aiming to explore the possibilities of innovation for applications across industrial sectors. The most significant features of nanotechnology are the fabrication of nanoscale structures, following the ongoing trend of miniaturization of technical systems, the controlled assembly of atoms and molecules to create useful/valuable components, the increasing integration of biological diversity, and the elucidation and comprehension of physicochemical phenomena and materials properties by nanoanalytics.

Nanotechnology has emerged as a technology focus at the end of the 1980s, using technological solutions that were already available in thin film deposition, ultraprecision engineering, nanoparticle synthesis, and supramolecular chemistry, which all had already reached high standards at that time. Today, nanotechnological R&D is targeted on the investigation, fabrication, and application of material structures smaller than 100 nm. In this size regime, materials show new functional properties that open totally new application perspectives to science and industry. Interdisciplinary approaches for a knowledge-based application of dimension, form, and geometry are necessary to use the nanoscale-based property changes for new products in an intelligent and demand-oriented manner. Further to the need and desire to comprehend the physical function of the single material components, it is strategically important to know the performance when they are assembled into larger systems. For the competitiveness of future-oriented industries, it is relevant to invest in research and applications that are based on the combination of chemical process development, structure-dependent property changes, and knowledge-based material generation. R&D and value chain strategies aim at solutions to make energy supply secure, to design smart packaging and sensor technologies for the food sector, to provide care for a rapidly ageing population and medicine of the future, to improve mobility for the aged, and to address the changes in working and living conditions. Environment and climate protection will gain more and more importance as the world is facing global changes. In the future, we will be forced to use available resources with more responsibility and mindfulness. Also, the need to use energy in a more economical way will demand new concepts for the generation, conversion, storage, and use of energy. Nanotechnology