Sustainable Energy Planning in Smart Grids

By David Borge-Diez

Sustainable Energy Planning in Smart Grids curates a diverse selection of innovative technological applications for problem-solving towards a sustainable smart grid. Through these examples, the reader will discover the flexibility and analytical skills required for the race towards reliable, resilient, renewable energy. This book’s combination of real-world case studies allows students and researchers to understand the complex, interdisciplinary systems that impact potential solutions. Detailed analysis highlights the positives and drawbacks of a variety of options, modeling considerations, and criteria for success. Trials and testing include electric vehicle charging, public lighting, energy mapping, heating solutions, and a proposal for 100% renewable cities.

With contributions from a global range of experts, this book builds the complex picture of integrated, systemic modern energy planning.

• Collects case studies from experts around the world
• Presents readers with insights into current technological applications and innovations for building a sustainable grid and energy system
• Provides well-rounded, complex context to these interdisciplinary challenges

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Sep 29, 2023
• ISBN: 9780443141553

Book preview

Front Cover for Sustainable Energy Planning in Smart Grids - 1st edition - by David Borge-Diez, Enrique Rosales-Asensio

Sustainable Energy Planning in Smart Grids

Edited by

David Borge-Diez

Department of Electrical, Systems and Automation Engineering, University of León, León, Spain

Enrique Rosales-Asensio

Department of Electrical Engineering, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1. Energy planning for a sustainable transition to a decarbonized generation scenario

Abstract

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Energy planning of electrical energy system

1.3 Renewable energy resources for decarbonized generation

1.4 Distributed generation

1.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2. Electrical consumption and renewable profile clusterization based on k-medoids method

Abstract

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Methods to select representative days

2.3 Results

2.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 3. Mapping of building energy consumption and emissions under Representative Concentration Pathway scenarios by a geographic information system descriptive framework: case study of Mexico

Abstract

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Geographic information system

3.3 Geographic information system computational framework for application on Representative Concentration Pathway scenarios

3.4 Framework applied to the case study of Mexico

3.5 Results

3.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 4. Energy sector and public lighting

Abstract

Nomenclature

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The socioeconomic position of Ecuador

4.3 The public lighting service in Ecuador

4.4 Ecuadorian policies of public lighting service

4.5 Problems and challenges faced by the public lighting sector

4.6 Conclusion and policy implications

References

Chapter 5. Pumped hydro energy storage systems for a sustainable energy planning

Abstract

5.1 Introduction

5.2 The pumping station as an energy storage system

5.3 Determination of sites for the implementation of a pumped hydro storage

5.4 Environmental impact of a pumping station

5.5 Particular cases in the Canary Islands

5.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 6. Renewable energy-driven heat pumps decarbonization potential in existing buildings

Abstract

Nomenclature

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Methodology

6.3 Scenario modeling and case study

6.4 Results and analysis

6.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 7. Households participation in energy communities with large integration of renewables

Abstract

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Background on energy communities and renewables integration

7.3 Demand response in energy communities

7.4 Energy communities case study

7.5 Conclusions

Funding

References

Chapter 8. Hybrid generation system based on nonconventional energy sources for artisanal fishing

Abstract

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Colombian energy potential

8.3 Methodology

8.4 Results and discussion

8.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 9. Analysis and proposal of energy planning and renewable energy plans

Abstract

Nomenclature

Formulae

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Data and methodology

9.3 Results and discussion

9.4 Conclusions and recommendations

9.5 Expressions of gratitude

References

Chapter 10. Optimal siting and sizing of renewable energy-based distributed generation in distribution systems considering CO2 emissions

Abstract

Nomenclature

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Uncertainty modeling

10.3 Mathematical modeling of the problem

10.4 Tests and results

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 11. Sustainable mitigation strategies for urban spaces in Mexican historic centers: pedestrian mobility challenges

Abstract

11.1 Introduction and background

11.2 Thermal monitoring in public spaces

11.3 Results and discussion

11.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgment

References

Chapter 12. Proposal of 100% renewable energy systems for cities

Abstract

Nomenclature

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Methodology

12.3 Initial situation of the city of Cuenca, Azuay, immersed in the Ecuadorian national context

12.4 Analysis

12.5 Discussion and analysis

12.6 Conclusions

12.7 Expressions of gratitude

References

Chapter 13. Electric vehicle battery charging strategy

Abstract

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Battery charging mechanism

13.3 Battery charging solutions

13.4 Framework for battery charging design/optimization

13.5 Battery charging case studies

13.6 Summary

References

Chapter 14. Health-conscious energy management of hybrid storage systems for electric vehicles

Abstract

Nomenclature

14.1 Introduction to electric vehicle energetic systems

14.2 Common devices for energy storage and energy sources for electric vehicles

14.3 Hybrid energetic systems for electric vehicles

14.4 State-of-the-art review on hybrid energetic system and energy management system

14.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 15. Integration of renewable energies and electric vehicles in interconnected energy systems

Abstract

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Methodology

15.3 Results

15.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Index

Copyright

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

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ISBN: 978-0-443-14154-6

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List of contributors

Emin Açıkkalp,     Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Eskisehir Technical University, Eskisehir, Turkey

Antonio Pulido Alonso,     Department of Electrical Engineering, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria University, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain

Paul Arévalo

Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Jaén, Linares, Jaén, Spain

Department of Electrical, Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering (DEET), University of Cuenca, Azuay, Cuenca, Ecuador

Jimmy Ayala,     Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Jaén, Linares, Jaén, Spain

Rúben Barreto,     GECAD – Research Group on Intelligent Engineering and Computing for Advanced Innovation and Development, LASI – Intelligent Systems Associate Laboratory, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal

A. Bassam,     Faculty of Engineering, Autonomous University of Yucatan, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico

David Borge-Diez,     Department of Electrical, Systems and Automation Engineering, University of León, León, Spain

Maximiliano Bueno-López,     Department of Electronics, Universidad del Cauca, Popayán, Cauca, Colombia

Diego Alejandro Chacón Campo,     Department of Electronics, Universidad del Cauca, Popayán, Cauca, Colombia

Suprava Chakraborty,     TIFAC-CORE, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India

Héctor Gerardo Chiacchiarini

Dpto. de Ing. Eléctrica y de Computadoras, Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS), Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Instituto de Inv. en Ing. Eléctrica Alfredo Desages (IIIE), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS) – CONICET, Bahía Blanca, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Javier Contreras,     Higher Technical School of Industrial Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain

Santanu Kumar Dash,     TIFAC-CORE, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India

Cristian Hernan De Angelo,     Grupo de Electrónica Aplicada (GEA), Instituto de Investigaciones en Tecnologías Energéticas y Materiales Avanzados (IITEMA) – Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto (UNRC) – CONICET, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina

Onur Elma,     Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey

Pedro Faria,     GECAD – Research Group on Intelligent Engineering and Computing for Advanced Innovation and Development, LASI – Intelligent Systems Associate Laboratory, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal

Luis Gomes,     GECAD – Research Group on Intelligent Engineering and Computing for Advanced Innovation and Development, LASI – Intelligent Systems Associate Laboratory, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal

Calvin Gonçalves,     GECAD – Research Group on Intelligent Engineering and Computing for Advanced Innovation and Development, LASI – Intelligent Systems Associate Laboratory, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal

Ruth María Grajeda-Rosado,     Faculty of Construction and Habitat Engineering, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico

Daniel Icaza

Catholic University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador

Doctoral School, University of León, León, Spain

Center for Research, Innovation and Technology Transfer CIITT, Lighting Technology Research Laboratory CIITT, GIRVyP Group, Cuenca, Ecuador

GIRVyP Group Research, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Catholic University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador

Department of Electrical, Systems and Automation Engineering, University of León, León, Spain

M. Jiménez Torres

Faculty of Engineering, Autonomous University of Yucatan, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico

Engineering and Projects Department, International Iberoamerican University, San Francisco de Campeche, Campeche, Mexico

Francisco Jurado,     Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Jaén, Linares, Jaén, Spain

Kailong Liu,     School of Control Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P.R. China

Leonardo H. Macedo,     Department of Engineering, São Paulo State University, Rosana, São Paulo, Brazil

Fabiano Maciel,     Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Maranhão (IFMA), Renascença, São Luís, Brazil

O. May Tzuc,     Faculty of Engineering, Autonomous University of Campeche, San Francisco de Campeche, Campeche, Mexico

Mario A. Mejia,     Department of Electrical Engineering, São Paulo State University, Ilha Solteira, São Paulo, Brazil

Christian Montaleza,     Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Jaén, Linares, Jaén, Spain

Gregorio Muñoz-Delgado,     Higher Technical School of Industrial Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real, Spain

Mónica Tatiana Rengifo Ordoñez,     Department of Electronics, Universidad del Cauca, Popayán, Cauca, Colombia

Antonio Padilha-Feltrin,     Department of Electrical Engineering, São Paulo State University, Ilha Solteira, São Paulo, Brazil

Qiao Peng,     Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom

Santiago Pulla-Galindo

Doctoral School, University of León, León, Spain; Center for Research, Innovation and Technology Transfer CIITT, Lighting Technology Research Laboratory CIITT, GIRVyP Group, Cuenca, Ecuador

Catholic University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador

GIRVyP Group Research, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Catholic University of Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador

Cristina Sotelo-Salas,     Faculty of Architecture and Design, Autonomous University of Baja California, Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico

Remus Teodorescu,     Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

Marcos Tostado-Véliz,     Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Jaén, Linares, Jaén, Spain

Diego Francisco Trujillo-Cueva,     Department of Electrical, Systems and Automation Engineering, University of León, León, Spain

Zita Vale,     GECAD – Research Group on Intelligent Engineering and Computing for Advanced Innovation and Development, LASI – Intelligent Systems Associate Laboratory, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal

Claudia Eréndira Vázquez-Torres,     Faculty of Engineering, Autonomous University of Yucatan, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico

Yusheng Zheng,     Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

Preface

David Borge-Diez and Enrique Rosales-Asensio

Economic development and sustainability are usually shown as incompatible terms, but this is a false statement. This book includes different innovative technological applications for sustainable development by applying problem-solving solutions toward a sustainable smart grid. Through these examples, the reader will discover the flexibility and analytical skills required for the race toward reliable, resilient, renewable energy. This book contributes to disseminate the last developments in the field and encourages readers to further develop similar sustainable solutions or apply them in their daily life.

Acknowledgments

David Borge-Diez and Enrique Rosales-Asensio

The editors thank the authors for all their valuable contributions; without them, this book will be impossible, this is your book. Thanks to Elsevier for the opportunity to collaborate with this prestigious editorial and to all the editorial team (especially Teddy Lewis and Rachel Pomery) for their help and support during the entire process.

Chapter 1

Energy planning for a sustainable transition to a decarbonized generation scenario

Onur Elma¹, Santanu Kumar Dash² and Suprava Chakraborty²,    ¹Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale, Turkey,    ²TIFAC-CORE, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India

Abstract

Fossil fuels remain the world’s most powerful source of energy, accounting for 81% of total power in 2018. Reducing dependency on coal, oil, and gas is a critical component of accomplishing important climate goals like the United Nations’s Sustainable Development Goals. In its Energy Strategy for 2050, the European Union declares that member countries must prepare their infrastructure for further decarbonization of their energy system in the long run, 2050. Therefore accurate energy utilization planning to achieve sustainable goals for the world is needed. The sustainable goals for decarbonization are different in various locations of the world, which lead to sustainable transition. This chapter has presented the requirement of various sectors and categories, which are involved in this world’s sustainable transition process. The penetration of renewable energies like solar, wind, and hydropower in different sectors will have a major contribution toward sustainable transition progress, at the present state utilization of renewable energies for transportation, industrial empowerment, and domestic utilization. Renewable energy resources are the future of the energy sources of the world, and these resources are implemented as under distributed energy generation mostly which is considered for microgrid and nanogrid formation. The planning of the energy strategies has a greater role in the widespread application of a smart grid which helps in the sustainable transition to reduce the emissions to the environment. All the components such as e-mobility, smart grid, renewable resources, and digitalization play an important role in decarbonization to achieve sustainable goals.

Keywords

Decarbonization; zero emission; sustainable electrification; energy planning; renewable resources

1.1 Introduction

Energy is one of the critical things for a human being. Especially, growing technology, increasing population, and welfare in the world cause more energy consumption. One of the solutions for this increasing demand is to install more power plants day by day which means increasing the generation side of the energy system. On the other hand, there is another solution which is to control and manage the demand side [1]. So, the solution should cover not only the generation side but also the load side of the energy system. Energy is a popular and critical topic for all sectors, so there are a number of studies and researches about energy and its green transition. These cover wide fields from generation to consumption such as efficiency, economy, sizing, design, optimization, production, stability, forecasting, marketing, security, etc.

Electricity is the most usable and preferable energy form for society. The electricity is generated from power plant and transmitted and distributed to the end users. The classic electricity network/power system and/or grid has a one-way direction from generation to the loads. However, the distributed generation (DG) and local small-size generation are possible with new technological development which is called smart grid [2]. The smart grid is the new version of the electricity network with digitalization. This new system, smart grid, has an advanced relationship between cyber-physical systems and social layers [3]. This structure can possibly have more efficiency and dynamic controllable power system which contributes to emissions reduction.

Modern society needs a reliable and environmentally sustainable power system that should be in the center. Governments, utilities, and institutions make decisions that affect the direction of the power sector. The governments can apply some mechanisms to control carbon emissions in electricity generation, which changes how power plants run and which power plants are built over time. However, there are always unpredictable factors such as the Russia–Ukraine war that affect energy supply security and can cause an energy crisis. Thus the green deal aims have been delayed by the European Union (EU) and other countries, which is another challenge for a sustainable transition to a decarbonized energy generation scenario.

On the other hand, more than 10% of the global human population still lacks access to electricity, and the world’s energy systems need modernization to supply more people with fewer emissions. Because those who do have power mostly get it through polluting fossil fuels. Energy is already responsible for around 70% of global emissions, while energy demand is slated to rise by nearly 10% by 2030 [4]. There are a number of barriers that often prevent businesses, cities, and others from securing the renewable power they want. These challenges should be solved for the sustainable transition of the green power system.

1.2 Energy planning of electrical energy system

Energy is a critical need for all the technological systems and productions in the market. With climate change, the energy generation requires the transition of green, efficient, and sustainable structure. This should be planned by national and international organizations. Also, the researchers, academicians, and other related partners should focus on a better transition of the energy system to more efficient and green structure. The main challenge is to plan a clean energy transition for all the electrical networks in the world. Besides, the government institutions have a vital role for energy planning in ensuring energy generation and demand control. There is critical relationship between governments and the energy sector that effects environment, economy, and people directly as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1 The relationship of the energy sector with related areas.

The governments should take responsibility, and it is necessary to direct the transformation into green energy by creating new opportunities without disturbing the relationship between energy needs and the sociological and economic cycle. Thus the risks caused by environmental effects can be minimized in the energy sector without breaking the relationship between the economy, humanity, and the environment.

Energy planning has a key role not only in green environment but also in sustainable development all over the world. The analysis of the energy sector should be started from the electrical power system and the changes in the energy generation and the consumption of energy in the world. The realized and expected electrical energy generation between 2015 and 2024 is given in Fig. 1.2 which is sourced by International Energy Agency (IEA) [5].

Figure 1.2 Electricity generation changes in the world [5].

The electrical energy needs are increasing day by day which caused the increase of electricity generation globally. As shown in Fig. 1.2, renewable resources will rise the part of the total power generation, which is important for green and zero-emission deals. However, the demand side of the power system is another critical part of efficiency and emissions control. The world electricity demand has been rising since COVID-19 pandemic. After reducing the effects of the pandemic, the electricity demand has been increasing day by day all around the world [6]. The developing and growing society causes the electricity demand naturally. The expected electricity demand will be decreased after 2022 depending on the IEA projection [6]. This can happen with some strategy for demand-side control and efficiency. The demand-side management has a significant potential to reduce the total consumption of electrical energy. There are many paths to cover generation and demand side, to involve different rates of change and different aspects of the transformation of the energy system.

Electrical energy systems get the biggest percentage of the total carbon emission all around the world, which is the big challenge for energy system development and the increase of the electrical energy needs in the world. The all-energy scenarios are related to reducing carbon emissions in the electric power sector. Global carbon emission comes from different sectors which are electricity, manufacturing, transport, industry, building, and others. These sector-by-sector emission relations can be found in [7]. The highest carbon emission is caused by the electricity generation sector in the last 5 years, and it increases year by year. That is why we need new technologies and solutions for the power systems. Innovation should be adopted as a key underlying driver of the clean energy transition and the focus of the present road map, particularly in the long term. Besides, net-zero CO2 emissions for the energy sector abatement are technically difficult so we would need to be offset by negative emissions through carbon removal technologies as another option.

1.2.1 Energy scenarios in China

China is the largest carbon emission–emitter country in the world [8]. That is why the Government of China has declared the energy transition strategies. This is very important not only for China but also all around the world to control global warming to 1.5°C, and China has significant potential for carbon reduction and green energy generation. Carbon emissions in China will peak before 2030, and they plan to have net-zero emissions until 2060. Also, China is the biggest energy consumer and generates electricity from mostly coal. The electricity generation comes from 64.1% coal, 17.1% hydro, 11.1% other renewable resources, 4.7% nuclear, and 2.8% natural gas in 2020 according to IEA [9]. That is, the main challenge is to control and reduce carbon emissions when the energy demand is rising annually. Almost 90% of China’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are caused by the energy sector. So, energy strategies should support the transition to carbon neutrality [10]. The decarbonization and green electricity transition require a well-coordinated strategy mix. The traditional strategies are not enough solutions to reduce emissions. China has realized its potential to apply an aggressive strategy to get its green deal. Energy Research Institute (ERI) in China has published a 2050 China Energy and CO2 Emissions Report which described potential energy and emissions scenarios for 2050 based on its models [11]. China has advanced with a new vision and a more comprehensive plan that includes the transformation of energy, social life, and technology together. On the other hand, the pandemic in 2020 and war tensions in 2022 can cause disruptions in certain energy strategies. This situation may cause irreversible negativities in the measures to be taken for climate change. The main target should be reducing coal production and increasing energy efficiency and renewable-based electricity generation.

1.2.2 Energy scenarios in the United States

The United States was for many years the largest carbon emitter in the world. Currently, it is still making significant carbon emissions after China. For this reason, their transition to carbon-free energy production is an important necessity. It is good that they have various policies and strategies for this purpose. However, the change of presidents significantly affects these processes. The withdrawal of the United States from the Paris Agreement has been done with Trump’s presidency which is a tragic example. On the other hand, the US’s Clean Power Plan has been announced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [12].

Energy consumption is increasing rapidly since the pandemic in the United States. Therewithal, electricity generation is affected by energy source prices, and coal power plants are getting harder to shut down. This is another challenge to the transition to net-zero emission energy consumption. Especially reducing emission in transportation, electric vehicles (EVs) is a key solution and that is another process for the power system and electricity generation policies. US Energy Information Administration (EIA) has published the Annual Energy Outlook 2022 which explores long-term energy trends in the United States [13]. They have created the projection scenarios of what may happen given certain assumptions and methodologies which is called AEO2022. It has been modeled based on the National Energy Modeling System (NEMS), an integrated model that captures interactions of energy supply, consumption, economy, and price. Their predictions show that energy consumption increases through 2050 as population and economic growth increase. Also, electricity usage continues to increase in buildings with local renewable energy implementations. They expect renewable energy will provide 22% of US generation in 2022 and 24% in 2023, up from a share of 20% in 2021.

1.2.3 Energy scenarios in the European Union

The EU is one of the leading organizations that declared that it will not remain indifferent to climate change. Their target is a 55% reduction in net GHG emissions by 2030. To make this target possible, the EU needs more effort to create new policies to implement its green deal aims. EU has a number of significant carbon emission–emitter countries, so they need some important steps to reduce carbon emissions with sustainable transition in the power systems. They have some positive progress mainly due to the increased use of renewables for electricity, heating, and cooling. However, it is not enough and renewables also need to cover a much larger share of energy used. On the other hand, the energy crisis depends on the Russia–Ukraine war affecting EU’s green deal targets. Some of the EU countries have to reactivate their coal power plants. This situation has a tragic effect on the transition to net-zero electricity generation. The EU member countries should prepare their strategy and vision for further net-zero energy systems by 2050. These strategies should be able to cover reasonable future EU energy and climate targets, which are aligned with renewable resources-based energy transition and always consider maximum efficiency and best cost benefits.

In December 2019, the European Commission declared its plan which aims to be the first net-zero climate continent. This plan is called European Green Deal that focuses on and strives for climate change [14]. As a response to climate change, the most important emission-emitter power systems must upgrade with advanced digitalization. Thus assumed decarbonization targets and the sociopolitical and techno-economic context greatly influence pathway perspectives and their main narratives. In this regard, multiple scenarios and pathway studies focus on global-, continental-, or country-wise perspectives and their respective energy transition challenges.

1.3 Renewable energy resources for decarbonized generation

Climate change makes its effects feel more day by day, and it is one of the most important threats to human society. Utilizing renewable energy sources is one of the best methods to lessen the consequences of climate change. In addition, renewable resources have a critical role in providing the energy needed for the progress of our civilization by reducing the damage to the environment.

Major renewable energy sources are hydro energy, wind energy, solar energy, biomass, and geothermal energy. By the year 2021, hydro, wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal contribute 15.3%, 6.6%, 3.7%, 2.3%, and <1% of global electricity generation, respectively, and renewable energy systems’ installation continues without slowing down. Increasing renewable energy usage has multiple advantages for the community such as the reduction of climate change effects, reducing the emission, and the development of energy technology and security.

1.3.1 Solar photovoltaic generation

Solar photovoltaic (PV) power generation is the process of employing solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity. PV systems combine solar panels, often known as PV panels, into arrays. PV systems can be grid-connected or off-grid (stand-alone) depending on their setup [15]. Solar panels, combiner boxes, inverters, optimizers, and disconnects are the essential components of these two PV system topologies. Meters, batteries, charge controllers, and battery disconnects are all possible components of grid-connected PV systems. Solar panels in the northern hemisphere are normally installed at a set angle pointing south to gather the most sunlight. A solar array is a system that is created when many solar panels are joined. Silicon is used in traditional PV solar cells. The most efficient panels are silicon cell panels, which have a life span of over 30 years. Solar PV power generation has a number of benefits and some drawbacks too.

Advantages

• Sunlight is free and available in many parts of the nation.

• No hazardous gas emissions, GHG emissions, or noise is produced by PV systems.

• There are no moving components in PV systems.

• PV systems help to lessen reliance on oil.

• PV systems can generate power in rural areas that are not connected to the grid.

• Grid-connected PV systems help to save money on electricity.

Disadvantages

• The initial cost of PV systems is high.

• To generate power, PV systems require a big surface area.

• The quantity of light available varies.

• When PV systems cannot deliver full capacity, they require extra energy storage or access to other sources, such as the utility grid.

1.3.1.1 Grid-connected photovoltaic systems

Grid-connected PV systems are the most frequent because they are easier to construct and often less expensive than off-grid PV systems that rely on batteries. Grid-connected PV systems enable homes to use less energy from the grid while also supplying unused or excess energy to the utility grid. The system’s structure and size are determined by its intended use.

1.3.1.2 Off-grid (stand-alone) photovoltaic systems

Solar panels are used in off-grid (stand-alone) PV systems to charge banks of rechargeable batteries during the day for usage and at night when the sun is not accessible. Reduced energy bills and outages, as well as the generation of clean energy and energy independence, are all reasons to use an off-grid PV system. Batteries, inverters, charge controllers, battery disconnects, and optional generators are all components of off-grid PV systems [16].

1.3.1.3 Solar power’s role in decarbonization

The installation capacity of solar energy is increasing throughout the world as evident in [17]. The most basic method for calculating the displaced CO2 emissions related to the deployment of PV technology is to utilize regional grid averages, which presume that any drop in power demand reduces fuel usage according to the current mix of fuels used for electricity generation. The European Union (EU-27), the United States, China, and the global average were used as case studies. The average CO2 emissions per kWh generated in these multiple places are 34,75,22,766 and 529 g CO2/kWh, respectively [18]. The greater associated emissions of the energy mixes of the United States and China, compared to the EU-27, are mostly attributable to the higher participation of coal power plants in their mixes, which account for approximately 42% and 81% of total electricity generation, respectively [19]. PV-related emissions range between 15 and 80 g CO2/kWh when considering emissions connected with the complete life cycle of PV systems, which are mostly related to manufacturing processes as well as plant O&M. PV-related emissions will decline in the future, following a linear pattern and reaching a value of 8.2 g CO2/kWh in 2050, according to research [20]. When compared to other viable decarbonization technologies, PV systems have relatively low unit emissions costs. Recognizing policy process problems, however, is a vital precondition for devising a plan that can achieve the ultimate aim of decarbonization. In general, considerations of solar-based decarbonization should progress beyond thought experiments that demonstrate solely physical viability. A serious study of regulatory and institutional needs and implications is required, as well as a critical evaluation of the larger societal ramifications of such an approach [21].

1.3.2 Wind turbines generation

Wind power is one of the renewable energy sources that is expanding the quickest. Utilization is rising globally, in part because prices are falling. The capacity of onshore and offshore wind generation worldwide has increased by roughly 112 times in the past 20 years, going from 7.5 gigawatts (GW) in 1997 to 837 GW by 2021, based on the most recent statistics from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Between 2009 and 2013, the amount of wind energy produced more than doubled, making up 16% of all renewable energy generated in 2016. While wind speeds are high in many parts of the world, the best locations for producing wind power are frequently remote. There is great potential for offshore wind energy. To reach the 8000 TWh projected by 2030 under the Net-Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario, generation must rise by 18% per year on average between 2021 and 2030 as shown in Fig. 1.3. Annual capacity expansions of 310 GW of onshore wind and 80 GW of offshore wind are also required. To accomplish this level of continuous capacity increase, much more effort is needed, with the most critical areas for improvement being cost reductions and technical improvements for offshore wind, as well as enabling approval for onshore wind easier.

Figure 1.3 Generation of wind energy in the net-zero scenario, 2000–30.

Wind turbines have been around for over a century. Engineers began attempting to harness wind energy to make electricity after the advent of the electric generator in the 1830s. Wind energy was produced in the United Kingdom and the United States between 1887 and 1888, but it is believed that modern wind energy was first developed in Denmark, where horizontal-axis wind turbines were built in 1891 and a 22.8-m wind turbine was placed in 1897 [22]; the evaluation of wind energy is depicted in Fig. 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Wind energy evaluation for energy generation.

The kinetic energy generated by air in motion is utilized to generate electricity. Wind turbines or wind energy conversion systems convert this into electrical energy. The blades of a turbine are initially impacted by the wind, which causes them to revolve and turn the turbine linked to them. Kinetic energy is changed into rotational energy by turning a shaft connected to a generator, which produces electrical energy via electromagnetism.

The amount of power that can be generated by the wind depends on the size of the turbine and the length of its blades. The output is related to the square of the wind speed and the size of the rotor. When wind speed doubles, wind power potential increases by an eightfold amount. Over time, wind turbines’ capacity has increased. The typical turbine in 1985 featured a 15-meter-diameter rotor and a 0.05-megawatt rating (MW). New wind power generation projects now have turbine capacity ranging from 2 MW onshore to 3–5 MW offshore. Commercially accessible wind turbines with capacities of up to 8 MW may presently have rotor diameters of up to 164 m. The average capacity of wind turbines increased from 1.6 MW in 2009 to 2 MW in 2014.

Wind turbine production, shipping, recovery, and disposal have measurable environmental consequences when considering the whole life cycle of a wind farm [23]. Therefore it is crucial to look into and assess the entire life cycle of wind power to determine its genuine capacity to battle climate change. The life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful tool for calculating the environmental impact of energy technologies. The environmental effect of onshore and offshore wind farm systems has been investigated in previous LCA studies. Schleisner [24] initially looked at GHG and pollutant emissions from offshore and onshore wind farms in Denmark from a life cycle viewpoint, finding that the GHG emissions intensities of offshore and onshore wind power installations were 16.5 and 9.7 g CO2-eq/kWh, respectively. Ardente et al. [25] then did research on wind farms in Italy, finding that the life cycle energy of a wind farm is 0.14–0.25 MJ/kWh, with GHG emission intensities of 8.8–18.5 g CO2-eq/kWh. The energy consumption and GHG emissions per unit power output of onshore wind farms in China are roughly 1/56 and 1/108 of those of thermal power plants, according to [26]. For the empirical study, the 49.5 MW wind power project in the Shi-san-jian-fang region of Xinjiang is used to analyze the project’s carbon intensity and emission reduction potential [27]. The carbon intensity of this wind power project is 4.429 g/kWh, and the potential for emission reductions over the course of its life cycle is 2.0416 million tons in principle, implying that wind power projects have a high potential for emission reductions when compared to typical coal-fired stations.

It can be shown that, when compared to thermal power generation, the carbon emission intensity of a wind power plant is far lower, and the overall emission reduction potential is considerable. As a result, wind power growth and utilization are critical for optimizing regional power structures, improving energy consumption habits and methods, and accomplishing low-carbon and green power sector development.

1.3.3 Hybrid renewable systems generation

Renewable energy sources such as the sun, wind, geothermal, ocean, and biomass have become essential for power and energy engineers to consider as long-term, cost-effective, and environmentally benign alternatives to traditional energy sources. However, because these renewable energy supplies are not always available throughout the year, hybrid renewable energy systems are being researched. A lot of study has been done in the last several years on the design, optimization, operation, and control of renewable hybrid energy systems.

Thanks to digital technology, hybrid energy systems have grown more connected, dependable, and intelligent. Connectivity and analytics advancements are enabling the creation of new digital systems such as smart machines. Energy technologies are becoming more accessible, safe, and productive as a result of digitalization. Apart from the fact that digitalization has an influence on all-energy demand sectors, such as planes, vehicles, and their supporting infrastructure, energy usage in buildings might be decreased by roughly 10% by utilizing digitalization to improve operational efficiency [28]. The influence of the digital revolution on future energy technology design is expected to be significant. Electricity markets might be significantly transformed by digitally integrated hybrid energy systems. Digitalization can aid in the integration of intermittent renewable energy systems into the electric grid. The latter allows for better energy demand and supply matching. This would provide the electric system more flexibility while also saving money by eliminating the need for additional energy infrastructure. Digitalization can also help with the development of dispersed energy resources. Energy trading inside local hybrid energy districts would be supported by new incentives and devices.

In addition to an optimized integration of end users into the electricity system, the development and implementation of integrated and smart hybrid energy technologies necessitate reconfigured and new value chains, regulatory and organizational innovation, business models and landscapes of energy services, and new research actors.

1.4 Distributed generation

Any electric utility company’s main objective in the new competitive environment is to lower the costs of operation, maintenance, and the building of new facilities to provide electricity to customers at lower rates. This is done by providing the appropriate level of reliability and increasing the market value of its services. To do this, an electric utility company will employ a number of strategies, one of which is to delay the requirement for a capital distribution facility in favor of a DG alternative. The DGs are not specifically any particular type of energy source. It can be small, integrated energy generation units, located near to the consumer loads. Solar generations, wind power generations, hydroelectric, and fuel cell power are the primary type of distributed energy resources that are chosen for electricity generation [29]. One of the key driving forces for distributed renewable energy resources is the need to decarbonize the power system and minimize GHG emissions. Because DG deployment does not necessitate the building of new power lines or major power plants, it eliminates the environmental challenges associated with their development as well as public resistance. As a result, a balance must be reached between the need to preserve the visual beauty of the environment and the need for sustainable energy supply choices. Others say that renewable energy technologies such as wind should be promoted since they emit nearly no GHGs and have no waste management difficulties. Investors may be enticed to invest in clean energy systems through economic incentives for ecologically friendly sources of power. Distributed generators need less capital investment and risk because their capacity is limited. As a result, this might encourage investors to get engaged in the DG power-producing market [30].

The majority of countries are gradually implementing policies aimed at promoting the deployment of DGs, particularly renewables. Because contemporary countries are so reliant on electricity, any disruption in its supply might have disastrous political, economic, and social ramifications [31]. DGs, particularly renewables, are a viable source of long-term energy supply and security. Furthermore, proponents of energy market reform say that a fully competitive market will result in lower electricity prices and better service. This market framework will incentivize power sector investors to deploy a large number of dispersed generators. Increased power consumption is a major driving force behind the deployment of DGs since more generators will be required to fulfill the rising demand [32].

Many studies suggest that future electrical systems should include the following features:

High power capability: With rising energy demand in industrial, residential, and civil applications, as well as the oncoming large-scale diffusion of EVs, electricity is rapidly becoming the world’s primary power source, and demand will rise significantly in the coming years; this trend is expected to continue for many decades, with external perturbations such as economic or political crises having only a minor impact.

High efficiency: During production, transportation, and distribution operations, power should not be spread; the grid and loads should be regulated to ensure optimum system efficiency.

High power quality and reliability: Electricity must be accessible at all times with the shortest possible delay, consistent voltage and frequency, and minimal harmonic distortion.

High flexibility: The electric grid should be highly adjustable and allow for seamless integration of various power sources; also, dynamic changes in loads and power sources should have no impact on power quality.

Traditional power systems are run to fully meet energy demand by taking into account expected power demands and generating a commensurate quantity of high-quality energy, that is, with steady output voltage and frequency [33]. Peak needs are met by producing quantities of electrical energy near peak values due to the high thermal inertia of steam generators, and hence, considerable energy surpluses are frequently available during periods of the light load operation. When possible, the energy surplus is used to boost the amount of energy stored in hydroelectric reserves. In brief, DGs and smart grids are extremely complex systems that necessitate a wide range of technologies, including but not limited to power systems, power electronics, communications, computer science, computational intelligence, and so on, to achieve full and optimized integration between generators, loads, and lines.

1.4.1 Microgrid and nanogrid

A reliable energy source is important to modern life. Growing worries about primary energy supplies, as well as the aging infrastructure of today’s electrical transmission and distribution networks, are putting a strain on power supply security, dependability, and quality. The development and renewal of these infrastructures will necessitate major investment, but the most effective method of using cutting-edge concepts, technology, and grid designs may merge societal needs. Future power grids will need to adjust to accommodate shifts in technology, cultural norms, the environment, and the economy. To adjust to shifting requirements in a liberalized market environment, new metrics for system security, operation safety, environmental protection, power quality, supply cost, and energy efficiency must be developed. Reliability, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness should all be demonstrated by technologies. Smart grids are a term used to describe the development of electricity networks [34]. A smart grid is a real-life power network that can automatically aggregate all of its users’ behavior. To successfully offer sustainable, economical, and secure power supplies, generators and consumers must work together. Innovative goods and services are combined with intelligent monitoring, control, communication, and self-healing technology to create a smart grid. The expectation of the consumers about the conventional power grid is to become more advanced to act in smarter ways at the transmission and distribution level to enhance efficiency. However, more smartness is required in the grid that can be analyzed by the following manners.

• Facilitation of high-volume distributed production based on renewable energy sources, by local distribution network operators.

• Smart metering systems communicate with end users to offer local energy demand control.

• Utilizing current transmission grid technology, such as dynamic control techniques, to give a greater overall level of electricity security, quality, and dependability.

In the sense that electricity flows in both ways and decision-making and control are spread, distribution grids are evolving from passive to active networks. It is simpler to mix DG, RES, and energy storage technologies with this type of network. It also makes it easier to produce new products and services, all of which must go by the same protocols and standards. An active distribution network’s main purpose is to effectively connect electricity generation with customer needs, allowing both parties to make real-time decisions. Cost-effective technology and new communication methods are required for power flow measurement, voltage management, and protection. The development of substantially new system principles is required to realize active distribution networks. Microgrids, often known as building blocks of smart grids, are the most promising and innovative network structures. Microgrids are organized around network control capabilities. The control capabilities enable distribution networks, which are typically connected to the upstream distribution network, to operate even when disconnected from the main grid in the case of faults or other external disruptions or catastrophes, hence improving supply quality. Overall, microgrids are distinguished from distribution networks with dispersed generation by their control implementation. Both thermal and electrical needs are met by microgrids, which also increase local dependability, reduce emissions, enhance power quality by maintaining voltage and removing voltage dips, and perhaps cut energy supply costs. A microgrid is a controlled component of the electrical grid that can be run as a single aggregated load, generator, or assorted auxiliary services to support the network. The control capabilities enable distribution networks, which are typically connected to the upstream distribution network, to operate even when disconnected from the main grid in the case of faults or other external disruptions or catastrophes, hence improving supply quality. A microgrid appears to be the best strategy for enticing end consumers via a common interest platform since it offers the most flexibility in terms of ownership structure and enables improvements in the efficiency of the global power system. Microsources have the ability to lower the requirement for distribution and transmission infrastructure [35]. DG near loads may actually reduce power flows in transmission and distribution circuits due to loss reduction and the possibility of replacing network components. Microgrids can help restore network functionality after breakdowns and relieve congestion in times of stress.

The use of DG has progressively increased over the last few decades with the idea that loads are passive in nature and that electricity moves from substations to the load side. DGs are frequently connected to distribution networks, mainly at medium-voltage (MV) and high-voltage levels. As a result, several literature on the connection of DGs inside distribution networks have been taken, spanning from control and protection to power quality [36]. Various distributed generating locations located near consumer usage have emerged as a viable alternative for meeting expanding customer demands for electric power with a focus on dependability and power quality, while also delivering various economic, environmental, and technological benefits. To achieve effective integration of such components, a shift in the connectivity concept is clearly required. It must be noted that the low-voltage (LV) distribution network can no longer be seen as a passive extension of the transmission network as microgeneration penetration increases. Microsources, on the other hand, may have a far greater influence on power balance and grid frequency over time. To fully integrate microgeneration and load power management in microgrid, a control and management architecture is necessary. A systematic strategy that considers generation and related loads as a subsystem or a microgrid is one possible way to exploit the increasing potential of microgeneration. The control and management system in a typical microgrid is intended to provide a number of possible benefits at all voltage levels of the distribution network. At different network levels, different hierarchical control mechanisms must be used to attain this purpose. Multi-microgrid is defined by the ability to manage several microgrids, DG units directly connected to the MV network, and MV-adjustable loads. Because of the hierarchical control structure of such a system, an intermediate control level is required to maximize multi-microgrid system functioning in a real market setting. Because the microgrid idea emphasizes local power delivery to adjacent loads, aggregator models that ignore generator and load physical locations are not microgrids [37].

A microgrid is normally found at the LV level, with total installed renewable power capacity in the MW range; however, there are exceptions: sections of the MV network might be included in a microgrid for connectivity purposes. Except for those built on physical islands, the bulk of future microgrids will run for most of the time under a grid connection; hence, grid-connected microgrids will provide the biggest benefits. A microgrid must either meet high criteria for storage space and capacity ratings of microgenerators to provide a continuous supply of all loads or rely on substantial demand flexibility to accomplish the long-term islanded operation. One of the key advantages of the microgrid idea over other smart solutions is its capacity to handle competing stakeholder interests to arrive at a globally optimum operation choice for all parties concerned.

1.4.2 Operation strategies of microgrid

DG technologies now available offer a wide range of active and reactive power-generating choices. The ultimate structure and operating schemes of a microgrid are based on possibly competing interests among various electrical supply stakeholders. Four alternative microgrid operational