Advances in Smart Grid Power System: Network, Control and Security

Advances in Smart Grid Power System: Network, Control and Security discusses real world problems, solutions, and best practices in related fields. The book includes executable plans for smart grid systems, their network communications, tactics on protecting information, and response plans for cyber incidents. Moreover, it enables researchers and energy professionals to understand the future of energy delivery systems and security. Covering fundamental theory, mathematical formulations, practical implementations, and experimental testing procedures, this book gives readers invaluable insights into the field of power systems, their quality and reliability, their impact, and their importance in cybersecurity.

• Includes supporting illustrations and tables along with valuable end of chapter reference sets
• Provides a working guideline for the design and analysis of smart grids and their applications
• Features experimental testing procedures in smart grid power systems, communication networks, reliability, and cybersecurity

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Oct 23, 2020
• ISBN: 9780128243381

Book preview

Advances in Smart Grid Power System

Network, Control and Security

Editors

Anuradha Tomar

Electrical Engineering Department, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Electrical Engineering Department, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noida, India

Ritu Kandari

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

Chapter 1. An introduction to the smart grid-I

1. Introduction

2. Traditional power system model

3. Smart grid framework

4. Smart grid—infrastructure and technologies

5. Energy storage technologies

6. Smart grid—advantages

7. Smart grid technical issues and challenges

8. Conclusion

Chapter 2. An introduction to the smart grid-II

1. Introduction

2. Energy management system

3. Demand/load-side management

4. Case study

5. Differences between past, present, and future grids

6. Conclusion

Chapter 3. Smart grid power system

1. Introduction

2. Dispersed generation

3. Dispersed-generator technologies

4. Dispersed-generator types

5. Benefits of renewable energy source–based dispersed generation

6. Challenges in renewable energy source–based dispersed generator integration

7. Storing energy for renewable energy sources

8. Small-scale renewable energy sources

9. Reliability of distribution network in presence of dispersed generators

10. Concluding remarks

Chapter 4. An introduction to smart grid and demand-side management with its integration with renewable energy

1. Introduction

2. Integration of demand-response programs with smart grids

3. Influence of demand response on smart grids

4. Smart grid scenario in the Indian power market

5. Renewable energy resources in India (a case study)

6. Biopower

7. Small-scale hydropower

8. Energy storage

9. Conclusion

Chapter 5. Approaches to smart grid network communication and security

1. Introduction

2. Review of communication and optimal power flow in smart grids

3. Smart grid communications integrity

4. Feasibility study of all-dielectric self-supporting cable networking for smart grid infrastructure

5. Finite element analysis results of proposed all-dielectric self-supporting networking hardware

6. Optimal power flow test systems vis-à-vis simulation results

7. Summaries and future scope of work

Appendix

Chapter 6. Internet of Things for smart grid applications

1. Introduction to the Internet of Things

2. Internet of Things protocols

3. Implementation

4. Smart grid applications

5. Cybersecurity

6. Conclusion

Chapter 7. Smart grid modernization using Internet of Things technology

1. Smart grid design challenges

2. Smart grid control infrastructure

3. Road map from smart grid to Internet of Energy concept

4. Conclusion

Chapter 8. Grid integration of single stage solar photovoltaic system using the exponential-based variable-step-size least mean square filtering control technique

1. Introduction

2. Proposed three-phase three-wire solar photovoltaic system

3. Control technique

4. Results

5. Conclusion

Appendix

Chapter 9. Environmental and technoeconomic aspects of distributed generation

1. Introduction

2. Impact of centralized generation on the environment

3. What is driving distributed generation?

4. Environmental issues related to distributed generation

5. Technical and other challenges of moving toward distributed generation

6. Economics of distributed generation

7. Incentives by different governments for distributed generation

8. Conclusion

Chapter 10. Forecasting of renewable generation for applications in smart grid power systems

1. Introduction

2. Renewable generation forecasting

3. Time-series-based forecasting of renewable generation

4. Regression-based forecasting of renewable generation

5. Flowcharts of well-established regression-based probabilistic forecasting methods

6. Results and discussion

7. Conclusion

Chapter 11. Power quality issues, modeling, and control techniques

1. Introduction to power quality

2. Power quality issues

3. Sources of poor power quality

4. Effects of poor power quality on end users

5. Compensators for mitigation of power quality problems

6. Classification of active compensators

7. Selection of active compensators

8. Design and modeling of active shunt compensator

9. Development of active shunt compensator controller

10. Simulation study and performance of active shunt compensator

11. Application of active shunt compensator in grid integration of solar photovoltaic system

12. Design, modeling, and control of solar photovoltaic-distribution static compensator system

13. Simulation study and performance of grid interfaced photovoltaic-distribution static compensator system

14. Conclusions

Chapter 12. A novel adaptive fuzzy-based controller design using field programmable gate arrays for grid-connected photovoltaic systems

1. Introduction

2. System description

3. Proposed fuzzy logic proportional integral derivative based on echo state network reference current generator

4. Simulation and experimental results under different scenarios

5. Conclusion

Nomenclature

Acronyms

Chapter 13. Renewable energy integration in modern deregulated power system: challenges, driving forces, and lessons for future road map

1. Introduction

2. Structure of the modern power system

3. Renewable energy integration

4. Driving forces and the future road map

5. Conclusion

Index

Copyright

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Contributors

Rashmi Agarwal,     Department of Electrical Engineering, J.C.Bose University of Science & Technology, YMCA, Faridabad, Haryana, India

A.V. Ajay,     Department of Computer Science and Engineering, NIE Institute of Technology, Mysuru, Karnataka, India

Divya Asija,     Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India

Chittibabu B,     Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design and Manufacturing Kancheepuram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Narendra Babu P,     Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Meghalaya, Shillong, Meghalaya, India

Manoj Badoni,     Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering Department, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India

Y.S. Brar,     Department of Electrical Engineering, IKGPTU, Kapurthala, Punjab, India

Sumana Chattaraj,     Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India

M. Gowtham,     Department of Computer Science and Engineering, NIE Institute of Technology, Mysuru, Karnataka, India

Neeraj Gupta,     Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Pankaj Gupta,     Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India

Sanjay K. Jain,     Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India

Karan Singh Joshal,     Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Ritu Kandari,     Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India

Navdeep Kaur,     Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India

Md. Irfan Khan,     Supreme & Co. Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Bharti Koul,     Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT Hamirpur, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India

Y. Bhuvan Kumar,     Department of Computer Science and Engineering, NIE Institute of Technology, Mysuru, Karnataka, India

Ashwani Kumar,     Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India

Rajender Kumar Beniwal,     Electrical Engineering Department, Sobhasaria Group of Institutions, Sikar, Rajasthan, India

P. Manoj,     Department of Computer Science and Engineering, NIE Institute of Technology, Mysuru, Karnataka, India

Sushri Mukherjee,     Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi, India

Rangababu P,     Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, National Institute of Technology Meghalaya, Shillong, Meghalaya, India

Kaibalya Prasad Panda,     Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Meghalaya, Shillong, Meghalaya, India

Gayadhar Panda,     Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Meghalaya, Shillong, Meghalaya, India

Dharmbir Prasad,     Asansol Engineering College, Asansol, West Bengal, India

B. Rajanarayan Prusty,     School of Electrical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India

Pushpendra,     Department of Electrical Engineering, J.C.Bose University of Science & Technology, YMCA, Faridabad, Haryana, India

Mamata Rath,     School of Management (Information Technology), Birla Global University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Koushik Sarkar,     Supreme & Co. Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Alka Singh,     Electrical Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India

Kanwardeep Singh,     Department of Electrical Engineering, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College, Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Rudra Pratap Singh,     Asansol Engineering College, Asansol, West Bengal, India

Karan Singh Joshal,     Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India

Anuradha Tomar

Electrical Engineering Department, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Electrical Engineering Department, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noida, India

Debesh Shankar Tripathy,     National Institute of Science and Technology, Berhampur, Odisha, India

Rajkumar Viral,     Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India

D.B. Vishwas,     Department of Computer Science and Engineering, NIE Institute of Technology, Mysuru, Karnataka, India

Chapter 1: An introduction to the smart grid-I

Pankaj Gupta, Ritu Kandari, and Ashwani Kumar     Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women, Delhi, India

Abstract

Traditional power systems are designed considering power flow to be unidirectional from the generating station to consumers. Generation mainly comes from conventional sources: thermal power, hydropower etc. However, environmental concerns and depletion of conventional sources have raised the need to promote renewable energy resources, which are also called distributed generation (DG). DG is being embedded in the distribution system, being location-specific and locally available energy. The distribution system has seen major changes, as it is no longer a passive network, and power flow is now bidirectional. Liberalization of energy markets now offers private operators and consumers in low-voltage distribution grids to participate in buying and selling of energy along with utilities. Thus, this raises the need for interoperability between various domains such as generation, distribution, and customers. Over time, the traditional power grid is upgrading and transforming toward becoming a smart grid, which may have more information, real-time monitoring support, a smart system for operation, metering, and customer participation. Various institutions and agencies are working to prepare the smart grid framework and road maps for future smart grids. This chapter presents an introduction to the smart grid in view of the National Institute of Standards and Technology framework and road maps issued for future smart grids. It covers seven domains, namely service provider, operations, market, generation, transmission, distribution, and customer. A smart grid is capable of optimizing the operations of interconnected domains. The roles of battery energy storage systems, electric vehicles, and their types are also discussed in brief.

Keywords

Battery energy storage system; Distributed generation; Microgrid; Renewable energy resources; Smart grid; Smart grid framework

1. Introduction

Traditional power systems are designed considering power flow to be unidirectional from generating station to consumers. The process involves step-up of voltage at the generating station and thereby transmission of electricity through transmission lines, which further steps down the voltage at the distribution substation for feeding to consumers. Generators, transformers, transmission lines, feeders, electromechanical metering, control, and protection units are the main components of a traditional power system. This system is a centralized generation system where the generating stations are centralized with no direct link between the generating unit and end user. Most thermal power plants today are becoming old, their efficiencies are coming down day by day, and concerns have been raised about their depletion of coal [1,2]. The potential for technological advancement in new business opportunities, aging assets, environmental concerns, and a lack of circuit capacity create the need for rapid replacement of these facilities, which is the biggest challenge [3]. Security of supply requires a reliable electricity supply as a growing number of critical loads are connected to grid. However, over time, power systems continue upgrading to provide more information, real-time monitoring, and control by making use of communication architecture [4]. Promoting renewable energy may be one possible solution to tackle the challenges posed by conventional energy resources [5]. Adding renewable energy sources (RESs) to the maximum extent possible can lead to excess generation from installed capacity and may reduce the gap between the peak energy requirement and available energy. These generations are locally available and location-specific, so they are being embedded into the low-voltage distribution grid. The distribution system has seen major changes because of distributed generation (DG) being embedded into the distribution system, making the power flow bidirectional [6]. Generation is most commonly done from RESs: solar, photovoltaic (PV), wind, etc. Liberalization of the energy market now allows private operators and consumers to participate in buying and selling energy along with utilities [7–9]. This upgrade has transformed the conventional power system into a smart grid, which applies extensive communication to every component of the power system for online monitoring, control, protection, and metering purposes [10,11]. Two-way interactions between customers and utilities, along with extensive use of sensors throughout the transmission and distribution lines, make the grid smarter [12]. From a customer’s perspective, customers can organize their consumption patterns based on energy availability, cost, and time of use; they may reduce their monthly energy bills by the maximum amount possible [13]. The smart grid helps the customer to manage their schedule for usage of electricity and choose the favorable time to sell or purchase electricity [14]. One can participate and save on energy bills, by generating power from a roof top solar PV generation [15] and by using electric vehicle [16]. One of the major factors that put us in risk today is the huge demand of electricity. Shortfalls of electricity means there is an energy gap between generation and consumption. The distribution loss, demand response management, energy management during peak hours, peak shortage [17], global warming, reduced gas emission [18], competitive bidding [19], electric vehicles [16], cybersecurity, Internet of Things [20], and advanced communication [10] are some areas of research in the smart grid scenario. Technically, control [21] and protection [22] of the distribution system in a smart grid scenario are a big challenge. A broad comparison between traditional and smart grids is given in Table 1.1.

This chapter presents an introduction to the smart grid with a view toward the smart grid framework and road maps issued by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for future smart grids [23–25]. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 discusses the traditional power system in brief. Section 3 presents the NIST concept of the smart grid framework. Section 4 discusses smart grid infrastructure and technologies. Energy storage technologies are presented in Section 5. Benefits of the smart grid as well as various challenges are discussed in Sections 6 and 7, respectively. Section 8 concludes the chapter.

2. Traditional power system model

An electric power system (EPS) is a network of energy providers and consumers interconnected with the help of transmission and distribution lines. Fig. 1.1 is a pictorial view of a traditional power system model consisting of generating stations, step-up transformer, transmission lines, step-down distribution transformer, and distribution lines feeding various loads. Besides this, there are control centers that help in operations and control of the EPS. The power system protection unit protects the EPS during various types of system faults. The transmission of extra-high-voltage AC lines comprises 800/765, 400, 220–132   kV, whereas the voltage of commonly used high-voltage DC lines is as high as 500   kV.

Table 1.1

Figure 1.1 Traditional power system model.

Power generation in a traditional EPS is typically from thermal power stations and hydropower stations, with a small proportion from nuclear power stations, nonconventional energy resources, etc. Subtransmission customers are connected to a 33   kV line and primary customers to an 11   kV line, while secondary customers—i.e., residential loads—are connected to a 400 V line, which may further be stepped down to 220 V for various domestic purposes. Customers may be industrial, commercial, or residential domestic types of loads. The EPS structure is historically vertical in nature—that is, energy is produced at the generation station and then transmitted through transmission lines at high voltage before being further stepped down at the distribution transformer to feed various types of loads through distribution lines and feeders. This means that power flow is unidirectional in a traditional EPS—i.e., from generating stations to consumers—as shown in Fig. 1.2. Hence, the control and protection of traditional power systems are designed assuming unidirectional power flow [26]. The customers are only consumers of electricity and have no role in electricity pricing, nor can they contribute to the grid even if they own a captive power plant.

Figure 1.2 Power flow in a traditional electric power system.

3. Smart grid framework

Probable smart grid structures and expected features have been extensively researched during the last decade [27,28]. The overall focus is on continuously making the grid more automated and computerized. The smart grid supports the interconnection of RESs in the low-voltage distribution grid [29]. The flow of electricity is now bidirectional—i.e., from generating station to consumer end and vice versa [22]. The generating stations generate necessary electricity according to total load requirements. All sectors of the power system have remote control units that are connected to one central unit. As required, conventional technologies are being modified and becoming more advanced, whereas those technologies that become obsolete are removed. With innovations and advancements in existing technologies, the utility grid has become more resilient and intelligent [30]. The integration of smart and intelligent devices for efficient, sustainable, and secure electric power flow from generation to consumption makes the system smart. It enables smart and automatic applications like energy storage, advance metering infrastructure [31], smart distribution management [32], and demand response. Real-time measurement and monitoring, big data, and intelligent computing are the key features [33] that make the grid smart. Using advanced automated control mechanisms, energy management schemes [32], smart sensors, and smart meters [31] improves system stability, making it more reliable. Advancements in technology have made integration of RESs possible [34], hence making the flow of electricity bidirectional and allowing for active consumer participation. Customers may have the pleasure of easy plug and play [35], which means they now can export and import energy according to their choices and costs.

Figure 1.3 Smart grid conceptual framework by the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

Fig. 1.3 is a pictorial view of the smart grid concept developed by the NIST [23,24]. It consists of seven domains, namely service providers, operations, markets, generation, transmission, distribution, and customer domains. The smart grid conceptually takes cares of secure communication between the various domains. The smart grid operates between customers, bulk generation, service providers, and the energy market with the help of an operating center. There is a secure communication interface between all the domains. The smart grid conceptually takes care of electrical energy flows between bulk generation to customers and vice versa. Together, the energy and communication interface between various domains conceptualizes the smart grid framework. The bulk-generation domain includes conventional and nonconventional energy resources. The customer domain includes industrial, commercial, and domestic customers. The role of each domain as described in Refs. [23,24] is summarized in Table 1.2 and discussed in the next subsections.

3.1. Bulk-generation domain

The bulk-generation domain includes all possible types of electricity generators that may participate in providing power to grid [23,24]. The bulk-generation domain helps to generate power. Bulk generation may be further classified into three classes, namely (1) renewable sources with variable generation, (2) renewable sources with nonvariable generation, and (3) nonrenewable sources with nonvariable generation, as shown in Fig. 1.4. There is an electrical connection between the bulk-generation and transmission domains. The bulk-generation domain shares information with the operation, market, and transmission domains via a secure communication network.

Table 1.2

Figure 1.4 Bulk-generation domain.

The main requirements for the bulk-generation domain include the promotion of renewable sources and private utilities, greenhouse gases emissions control, the provision of energy storage, wide area monitoring (WAM), interoperability among various domains, and maintenance of system stability and reliability.

3.2. Transmission domain

The transmission domain transmits the bulk power generated at the generating station to the distribution system and vice versa. It transfers electrical power from generation sources to distribution through multiple substations; the generating station voltage is from 20 to 23   kV, which is stepped up to high voltage of 800 or 400   kV. The high voltage is then stepped down to 230   kV, then to 132   kV, 66   kV, 11   kV, and finally 440   V   at the customer end. The transmission network is operated by two operators—one is the regional transmission operator and the other is an independent system operator (ISO) [36] whose primary responsibility is to maintain the stability of the electric grid. Stability is maintained by balancing generation with load. If the two are balanced, the system will be stable, and frequency and voltage will be within limits. The other services are energy and support ancillary services. The ancillary services provide frequency support, voltage support, and spinning reserve.

The transmission domain has three parts, namely substation storage, measurement, and control. The substation helps maintain all equipment, such as the transformers, measuring equipment, protection system, and metering equipment, used for the transmission system. The measurement and control section measures, records, and controls with the intent of optimizing grid operation. The storage part provides control by charging and discharging the energy storage unit in accordance with requirements. If generation is more than consumption or load demand, the excess energy is stored in the storage device. This energy is utilized when generated power is in deficit.

3.3. Distribution domain

The distribution domain is the important interface between the transmission and customer domains. This domain interacts with the transmission, customer, operations, and market domains for smooth operation of the power system as shown in Fig. 1.5. Smart metering systems are also well connected with the help of the distribution domain. The electrical distribution system may be arranged in a variety of structures including radial, mesh, and loop. For improved reliability, a radial system may also have a loop or mesh system. The distribution system has undergone significant changes in order to facilitate the interconnection of RESs, electric vehicles, and energy storage devices.

Smart grid architecture provides well-connected electrical access for residences, electric vehicles, and RESs through an efficient energy management system [37]. The protection of the distribution system has undergone a complete change because it was designed under the assumption of unidirectional power flow; however, power flow is now bidirectional. The major components of the distribution domain are the smart infrastructure, communication, management, and protection systems. The smart infrastructure system is further divided into two parts, a smart energy system and smart information systems. The smart distribution of power is possible because of the smart distribution domain, which is now supported by the two-way flow of power and information.

Figure 1.5 Distribution domain.

3.4. The customer domain

In the customer domain, the customer is the end user who consumes the power. These customers are basically of three types, namely (1) domestic home customers who use power for home equipment, (2) commercial or building consumers who consume power in commercial buildings or sectors, and (3) industrial power sectors or consumers. The power range for home users is up to about 20   kW; for commercial buildings, it is 20–200   kW, and industrial users, it should be greater than or equal to 200   kW. The energy services interface (ESI) [38] provides a secure end interface for utility-to-customer interactions. A dedicated communication system is essential for the flow of data from one customer end to another customer end or from one to another part of the smart grid network. The ESI communicates with the advanced metering infrastructure through the Internet. The ESI communication system also communicates with the devices present inside the system through the home area network (HAN) or local area network. Building and home automation [39] using microgeneration, which includes all types of DGs, is also part of the customer domain. The major function of this building and home automation is to control various functions inside buildings in the smart grid. Electric vehicles also play a vital role in the customer domain by balancing energy during peak and off-peak hours [40].

3.5. Market domain

Market means where grid assets are bought or sold. There are some high-priority challenges as far as the market domain is concerned. The first is extension of price, and for that, the distributed energy resource (DER) power for each customer should be closely monitored to determine the price. The second challenge is the expansion of aggregator capabilities, which may help the DER and small utilities to participate in the exchange of power in big power markets. Next is interoperability—that is, the ability to operate the smart grid concept in such a manner that all domains are able to speak with one another. Growth management and regulation of energy retailing and wholesaling are also important aspects of the market domain. The important components of the market domain are DER aggregation, market management, market operations, wholesale trading, ancillary services, and retailing. The DER aggregator combines small participants in the market to sell their power to the energy market—i.e., to enable them to actively participate in the energy businesses. Market management helps manage the ISOs for wholesale markets. The ancillary operations provide frequency, voltage, and spinning reserve support. The retailing section of the market domain sells power to end consumers.

3.6. Service provider domain

The service provider domain consists of companies or organizations that provide services to customers and utilities. It supports the business processes of power system. The service provider domain helps in processing the business of all domains. Business processes include traditional utility services: billing of customers, customer account management, management of energy used, etc. It is difficult to develop the key interfaces and standards that enable a dynamic market-driven ecosystem, so things provided by the service provider ecosystem should be economical, reliable, user-friendly, and environmentally friendly; as well, the critical power infrastructure should be intact. The components of the service provider domain are installation and maintenance, building management, home management, emerging services, account management, customer management, and finally, the billing system. This domain speaks to the market’s customers and operations through a dedicated communication system by exchanging data between them. The installation management component of the service provider domain helps in installing and maintaining premises equipment. The building management section monitors and controls all building energy. As far as the service provider is concerned, the main part is billing. Customer information should be properly accessed for billing, and the bill should be prepared on time. Emerging services are basically innovation services of the smart grid operation—innovations in future smart grid operations that can make our smart grid operations more accurate, reliable, and secure. The last business process is customer management. The customer management section maintains relationships with customers so that customer relationships are properly maintained in a fair manner.

3.7. Operations domain

The next domain of smart grid architecture is the operations domain. It comprises mainly the supervisors of electricity flow management and is responsible for smooth operation of the EPS. The main target of the operations domain is to maintain, operate, monitor, and control the smart grid in a secure, dependable, and reliable manner. The main components of the operations domain are maintenance and construction, finance, supply chain logistics, records and assets, security management, communication networks, meter reading and control, operations planning, and extension planning.

All components of the operations domain communicate with each other through a secure communication channel. The priority is uninterrupted power supply and the quality of power to customers. The monitoring part of the operations domain consists of the phasor measurement unit (PMU) or WAM systems. The supervisory control and data acquisition system, PMU, or WAMS provides monitoring support. In the monitoring system, this equipment supervises network connectivity, power, voltage, frequency, etc. Besides monitoring, control is the other objective of this domain. The control section supervises and provides automatic control support. The protection and fault management system helps to identify the fault, its elimination, and service restoration. Major disturbances are taken care of by this system. The disturbances are detected, maintained, and repaired, and service to the customer is then restored. Next is analysis—system operation, control, monitoring, and fault detection—every part is analyzed to determine whether it is operating properly relative to expectations. This analysis is a must in the smart grid system, and reporting statistics calculations are a part of it. The next section is training and real-time network calculation; this section provides records and assets, the facility for dispatches that stimulate the system and provide tracking reports on network equipment inventory. The other sections are maintenance, extension planning, and customer support.

4. Smart grid—infrastructure and technologies

4.1. Smart information system

The smart grid expects two-way communication between various domains, especially in the distribution system where the end users—i.e., customers—are present. Their metering, billing, and feedback are important data for designing a self-sustained smart information system [41]. In the smart information system, smart meters and smart routers are connected through a HAN with the help of low-cost Zigbee metering communication [42] devices placed for the exchange of information within the smart grid [43]. A