Managing Urban Rivers: From Planning to Practice

Managing Urban Rivers: From Planning to Practice captures the different facets of river management required for integrating rivers within the development landscape of cities in a sustainable manner. Sections cover the entire spectrum of urban river management, from planning to actual on-the-ground implementation, providing a one-stop destination for knowledge on urban river management. Edited by a team of four experts with practical experience in this domain, the different chapters of the book are authored by eminent scholars and practitioners with expertise in specific areas of urban river management.

Urban rivers and their management is a hot topic as governments across the world are focusing on this aspect, especially since it has direct implications for SDG target 6.6, which aims to “protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes.

• Presents practical, global case studies in almost every chapter
• Provides recommendations for best practices, based on lessons from different successful case studies, as well as the expert insights of the authors
• Features contributions from global experts for a unique and specialized approach to the topic of urban rivers

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Sep 23, 2023
• ISBN: 9780323910637

Book preview

Section A

Introduction and context setting

Outline

Chapter 1 Cities and rivers: a symbiotic relationship

Chapter 2 Urban river management: scope and spectrum

Chapter 1

Cities and rivers: a symbiotic relationship

Rajiv Ranjan Mishra¹ and Shivani Saxena²,    ¹National Institute of Urban Affairs, National Mission for Clean Ganga, New Delhi, India,    ²National Mission for Clean Ganga, New Delhi, India

Abstract

The chapter introduces the unique relationship that coexists between rivers and cities. It explores the evolution of this relationship right from the time when cities grew on the banks of rivers, relying on its waters for communication, agriculture, water supply, transportation, and defense among others. This symbiotic relationship nurtured many great cities on the banks of rivers; however, with time, this river–city connect was lost. The chapter moves on to capture this change, highlighting the various effects increased urbanization has had on urban rivers and creates an understanding of the principals driving the nature of river city interactions. It outlines the existing and the desired relationship in managing urban rivers. This builds a case for identifying the social, economic, and environmental benefits that a river naturally provides, and the hidden or intrinsic benefits that need to be acknowledged by cities. It extensively refers to the various global, basin, and city level approaches that have been adopted in recent years to create a more enabling environment for the river–city connect to grow sustainably. Finally, the chapter brings out key ideas, system approach, and outlook for evolving the body of knowledge on managing urban rivers, which can help develop long-term vision and development goals of a river city.

Keywords

River cities; river governance; urban river management plan; river city alliance; people—river connect

1.1 Introduction

Have you also learned that secret from the river; that there is no such thing as time?’ That the river is everywhere at the same time, at the source and at the mouth, at the waterfall, at the ferry, at the current, in the ocean and in the mountains, everywhere and that the present only exists for it, not the shadow of the past nor the shadow of the future. — Hermann Hesse, German-Swiss poet, novelist, and painter.

The innate calm and a renewed feeling of self and the immeasurable peace that one experiences around a river are often regarded as one of those rare moments of solitude. The gentle swells and dips of the water stream are pervasive, restoring faith in nature and continuity of life. Almost everyone in the world has, at a time in their lives, visited a river. Be it for a swim or boating or fishing or just walking along its shores, rivers have had a unique place in people’s minds and hearts. For some, it is spiritual enlightenment, for some, it is a gateway to moksha, some believe in its healing powers, some get creative inspiration, and for some, it is simply a means of life. In whatever way, rivers are perceived, the truth is that they are inevitably intertwined in nature and in our lives.

Rivers have also fascinated people to explore more, and as travelers chasing down the rivers, new lands got discovered and opened the new vistas of civilizations to bloom. Rivers have witnessed the origins of human history’s greatest transition, the Agricultural Revolution, from small, nomadic bands of hunter-gatherers to larger, agricultural settlements. Some of the earliest evidence of farming comes from the archeological site of Tell Abu Hureyra, a small village located along the Euphrates River in modern Syria (Onion et al., 2019). Rivers have also been the focal point of historical events, shaping the world today with many a city’s expansion, sometimes serving as a natural deterrent to invaders, sometimes giving life to deserted lands, and germinating a civilization along its fertile land. About 152 capital cities out of 195 countries are on the banks of rivers clearly underscoring the river’s strategic importance.

The religious and cultural symbolism is also synonymous with rivers. The origins may be traced back to the earliest civilizations, when the rivers were revered as deities and natural force of the universe. China along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers, the Indus valley civilization, ancient Egypt along the river Nile, and Mesopotamia (the name in Greek means land between the rivers) along the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers were the four earliest civilizations of the world. A bountiful harvest was seen as a gift from the gods, through a land made fertile by the river, whereas floods meant the gods were angry. A case in point where according to scholars, the Nile River came to be known as the Father of Life and the Mother of all Men, and was considered a manifestation of the God Hapi, blessing life to the barren desert land of Egypt and of Goddess Ma’at, embodying truth, harmony, and balance. A Greek historian named Herodotus aptly called Egypt the Gift of the Nile (Mustafa Abd El Salam, 2019). Varanasi, on the banks of River Ganga in India, carries a cultural harmony of eons. One of the oldest cities of India, it positively vibrates with its ethos of cultural ethnicity, an experience elevated by the River Ganga, its ghats juxtaposed with historical architecture. Delhi, the capital city of India has witnessed several empires that were fallen and built over, an urban fabric of seven historical cities, all stemming from their link to River Yamuna.

The urban blueprint of river cities has, therefore been entrusted with a distinct perspective in planning—incorporating a river in their midst. Although a widely recognized and valued asset, not many cities realize the latent transformative powers of rivers. From sustaining a habitat to the social, economic connotations garnered through people interactions, the river plays a multifaceted role before completing its journey. Cities on the banks of rivers are therefore equipped with a natural asset, which once incorporated in planning and managed sustainably and can help the city maintain harmony with nature and achieve its greater potential.

A broader understanding of how rivers are linked to cities can be studied from the perspectives of river and economy, river and people, and river and ecology.

1.1.1 River and economy

Cities are engines of economic growth. Global experiences reveal that growth in industries and services invariably takes place in cities due to agglomeration economies, increase in productivity, innovations, and entrepreneurship, driving an increasing trend of rural-to-urban migration. Major economies, to continue sustained growth trends, depend on clean and plentiful water supply. The stimulation to economy provided by the river, its environs and ecosystem services is, therefore a direct value enhancement to the urban local bodies and state governments.

River Chao Phraya along with being the cruise destination of Bangkok capturing Bangkok’s tremendous skyline, is known for its famous floating markets creating local livelihood opportunities. Some rivers situated away from the city boundaries, cater to the economic potential of the area. Ayung river in Bali, stands as an apt example where tourist resorts have cropped up choosing the seclusion and green natural environs provided by the river zone for an enriching experience. Tourism-led activities like water rafting, nature walks, trekking, and kayaking have unlocked a high potential of revenue generation for neighboring communities. Several thriving cities have drawn economic sustenance on the bank of River Ganga with potential for all these activities (Fig. 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Tourism led livelihood activity in River Ganga. Source: Ganga: Reimagining Rejuvenating, Reconnecting, Book by Author, Rupa Publication.

Asset monetization of the rivers banks and services can lead to further innovations in revenue generation. Ambitious projects like Singapore’s downtown area encapsulating the Singapore river have boosted economic development in terms of taxation revenues of properties, profit flows, simulated investment intentions, and employment opportunities (Siti Zaleha et al., 2016). An analysis of the property market indicators in the United States, for cities such as Wilmington, DE; Chattanooga, TN; Des Moines, IA; Hartford, CT; Louisville, KY; Pittsburg, PA; and Providence, RI, proved that the Urban Riverfront Development had a positive impact to the property market value particularly adjacent properties within the riverfront area (Dauffenbach, 2016). A clear and direct economic potential can therefore be quantified through these services (Fig. 1.1).

1.1.2 River and people

Frequenting a riverfront is a social activity, which is intrinsic to cities. A trip to London, Budapest, or Bangkok is incomplete without visiting the river. Small frames of city life can be experienced with a stroll along the riverfronts. London and Budapest both have their historical cities, placed on the banks of River Thames and Danube, respectively, experiencing architectural sites, immersion walks, and food culture. There are several ancient sites of historic and architectural importance in cities along Indian rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna. The Cheonggyecheon restoration revitalized Seoul’s river harnessing ecological and recreational opportunities along the 3.6-mile corridor. Riverfronts facilitate social connect of people with the rivers for several purposes (Fig. 1.2).

Figure 1.2 River-front as a means of social connect on the banks of River Ganga. Source: Ganga: Reimagining Rejuvenating, Reconnecting, Book by Author, Rupa Publication.

River Ganga and her Ghats are irrevocably, a part of the daily routines of people in many major cities of India, absorbing the riverfront into the city’s footprints. Great festivals like the Kumbh Mela and Chhath puja are celebrated in India on the River banks. According to Hindu belief, bathing in the holy waters of River Ganga will help in forgiveness of transgressions and help attain salvation. The riverside communities since ancient times are also proficient in certain arts and crafts, which are a way of life as well as livelihood. Rivers have inspired masterpieces of poetry and prose. The social cohesion provided by a waterfront is therefore unparalleled to any other urban construct.

1.1.3 River and ecology

Only 3% of all the water in the world is usable fresh water. Out of this small portion, two-third is frozen, a small fraction is constituted by lakes and rivers, while majority of the remaining is underground. It is on this fragile supply that the world population depends. Rivers account for only 0.49% of the total freshwater sources of the world, but what distinguishes them, is their ability to flow, cover large distances, and help nurture a fertile habitat (Shiklomanov’s, 1993). Rivers also play an important role in conserving and sustaining wetlands, which in turn support almost 40% of earth’s species. An estimated 3000 fish species are found in the Amazon. River Irrawaddy of Malaysia produces more than 1.3 million tons of fish per year, employing approximately 1.5 million people. Riverine ecology includes its flood plain, riparian buffer, tree cover, biodiversity, and an inherent connection between surface and subsurface water. In a larger context, urban river and its ecosystem include all these as well as the urban wetlands and waterbodies. To do justice to urban ecology, rivers need to be understood with this broader approach. In this approach, involvement of local community should play an important role. Sensitizing the community volunteers about conservation of biodiversity and ecological principles can be more effective with a linkage to improving their livelihood. Trained volunteers use their boat to act as a guide with ecological messages and also market their traditional products (Fig. 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Leveraging River Ganga for livelihood and biodiversity conservation awareness. Source: Ganga: Reimagining Rejuvenating, Reconnecting, Book by Author, Rupa Publication.

1.2 Transformation of rivers with time

The beautiful lines of TS Eliot eloquently present the change, the fate of rivers as the civilizations have grown, as we have made the progress:

I do not know much about gods; but I think that the river

Is a strong brown god—sullen, untamed and intractable,

Patient to some degree, at first recognized as a frontier;

Useful, untrustworthy, as a conveyor of commerce;

Then only a problem confronting the builder of bridges.

The problem once solved, the brown god is almost forgotten

By the dwellers in cities—ever, however, implacable.

Keeping his seasons and rages, destroyer, reminder

Of what men choose to forget. Unhonoured, unpropitiated

By worshippers of the machine, but waiting, watching and waiting.

(By T.S. Elliot, The Dry Salvages, No3 of Four Quartets).

Rivers—once, the cradles of civilization, started becoming their dump yard with serious threat to their own existence. A natural asset, central to the foundation of any city, has over the years been pushed aside as only a provider of resources, and though boosting multiple aspects of a city’s livability potential, the river is slowly losing its identity. A revered deity in name, the polluted channels have become a flowing paradox of people’s perceptions. This paradox is perhaps most glaring in case of Ganga, which is revered as mother goddess but it does not prevent people from making it dirty. This is more intense in urban areas. River management is complex and challenges are even more acute in urban areas.

Sixty percent of the world’s 227 biggest rivers have interrupted stream flows due to dams and other infrastructure. Fig. 1.4 highlights the levels of fragmentation and flow regulations across various prominent world rivers. Interruptions in stream flow dramatically decrease sediment and nutrient transport to downstream stretches, reducing water quality and impairing ecosystem health (UN WWAP, 2003).

Figure 1.4 Global status of River fragmentation and flow regulation. Source: Revenga et al. (2000), Washington DC: World Resources Institute.

In temperate regions, rivers were harnessed for navigation, water supply, and energy, often without long-range strategic planning or any assessment of tradeoffs. As a consequence, rivers served as waste disposal systems, and their flow was bisected with the proliferation of water management and diversion infrastructure. The productive floodplains and routes used by migratory fishes were disconnected from the river adversely affecting fish populations, local community livelihoods, and food security. Many rivers in water stressed areas have been diverted fully, not reaching the ocean. The Rio Grande on the border of the United States and Mexico often fails to reach the Gulf of Mexico. Some rivers have also been formally declared as living entities and given rights. Mighty rivers, which struggle but reach the ocean, include the Nile, the Murray-Darling, and the Colorado among a few. Only one-third of large rivers in temperate and tropical regions remain free flowing (World Wide Fund for Nature, 2006) and at least 64% of global wetlands have been lost since 1900s (Gardner et al., 2015).

A range of development trajectories is now playing across rivers. The consequences are reflected in global river ecosystem health statistics. Many of the productive global river deltas including those of Mekong, Nile, and Mississippi rivers are rapidly shrinking due to upstream removal of sediment by mining and capture within reservoirs (Convention on Biological Diversity—CBD, 2005). On the other hand, pollution levels in rivers of North America and Europe have declined dramatically, largely due to expanding societal values for water and rivers.

This challenging situation is aptly captured by the concern expressed a book, Ganga: The many pasts of a River (Sen, 2019)—Will the Ganga survive its burden of human and industrial contaminants? Will dams and barrages strangle its flow one day with an unbearable burden of slit and detritus? Will it go the way of the great Yellow River of China, which dried up in 1997, at a staggering distance of 400 miles inland from the delta, sacrificed in the pursuit of industrial progress and in the name of modernity? The physical death of the most cherished river of India would be unthinkable for most people in India, who, despite the evidence of its endangered environment and ecology, still find solace in the idea of the Ganga as the maternal spirit of their civilization. The river, with its water and its valley that have sustained the imaginative life, material culture, and daily subsistence of millions of inhabitants of the subcontinent over so many centuries, is now alas facing its most daunting challenges. This concern equally stands for most of the rivers in today’s world.

Climate change impacts can also be felt across the spectrum of riverine ecosystems exposed in their low flow, which is associated with degradation of wetlands and lakes and is having increasingly large effects on overall health and economy. Other impacts may include increasing demand of water for irrigation, reduced hydropower potential, threats to water linked tourism, fisheries, navigation, floods, droughts, etc. River-related risks have to be addressed with foresight for climate resilience, making them a catalyst for adaptation.

Today 41% of the world’s population lives in water stressed river basins (FAO, 2016). Major threats include restrictive water infrastructure, overextraction of water, climate change, invasive species, overfishing, and pollution.

1.3 Uniqueness, enormity of challenges, and urban river governance

No man ever steps into the same river twice, for it is not the same river, and he is not the same man, Greek philosopher Heraclitus.

A hydrological mosaic of an estimated 263 international river basins covers the earth. Although the Register of International River Basins is updated from time to time, the current numbers of river basins identified under transboundary water assessment programme (TWAP) by UNEP-DHI in 2016 were 286 international river basins. The reason for these changing numbers is identified as changes in political borders and improvements in resolution of remotely sensed data. United Nations Environment Programme, had in 2005, identified 26 major world river basins, the highest number (11) being in Asia and Australia. These river basins are crucial to world’s ecosystems, covering almost 45% of the land surface excluding Antarctica.

Considering the population distributions, level of urbanization, and risks involved with these river basins, it is critical to understand regional contexts and identify the key parameters, which may govern future development and regional expansion.

1.3.1 Variables directly affecting river–city interaction

An integration of a much larger system of water, region, city to ward planning along rivers can undertake substantial paradigm shifts. Good water governance is an essential pillar for implementation of a holistic strategy for river rejuvenation. Yet the governance structures of many countries lack potential and are time fragmented. The central governments are responsible for formulating policies, developing legal frameworks, planning, coordination, funding, financing, capacity development, etc. However, implementing decisions and ensuring progress for river cities goes far beyond government agencies and policies. It encompasses financial policies to incentivize effective water management, mobilizing private sector, and informal governance mechanisms such as water user associations. Involving critical stakeholders ensures benefits in the long run by participating. Effective, responsive, and accountable institutions need transparency of information and openness to involve communities in decision-making. The cities and their treatment of the rivers should suggest their historical context, geographical constraints, and ecological uniformities.

Broadly, effective river governance by cities can be altered by the following challenging parameters:

1.4 River as provider

A river is water in its loveliest form, rivers have life and sound and movement and infinity of variation, rivers are veins of the earth through which the lifeblood returns to the heart. - Roderick Haig-Brown, Canadian writer and conservationist. Rivers have a large ecosystem with several components such as water systems, sedimentation, and biodiversity, which are also interdependent and cannot be understood in isolation. Impacts on one component can be felt across the ecosystem services that a river provides. These are in the nature of provisioning, regulating, and supporting cultural ecosystem services. The subsequent section tries to analyze these various aspects and innumerate the tangible and intangible relations that a river fosters within its environs.

1.4.1 Water and food security

Water management infrastructure built for flood control, water storage, and water supply has proven benefits for economies. In India, one of the most populated countries of the world, the Ganga River basin supports nearly 43% of population for their needs. This large and most important basin in India has several head streams, tributaries, wetlands, springs as part of its ecosystem (Fig. 1.5). Through developed irrigation systems, rivers irrigate 190 million hectares of land, with irrigated land accounting for nearly 40% of global food production (FAO, 2016). The Mekong delta, home to almost 17 million people, supports thriving agriculture productivity. It accounts for nearly half of Vietnam’s staple crops generating a quarter of the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP). Fig. 1.6 shows the availability of fresh water systems including rivers in the world highlighting uneven distribution of natural resources.

Figure 1.5 Tributaries of River Ganga—River Alaknanda and Bhāgīrathi meet at Devprayag, in Uttarakhand, India. Source: Ganga: Reimagining Rejuvenating, Reconnecting, Book by Author, Rupa Publication.

Figure 1.6 Availability of Freshwater, 2000—average river flows and groundwater recharge. Source: World Resources 2000–01. (2000). People and ecosystems: The fraying web of life. Washington DC: World Resources Institute.

1.4.2 Energy security

Rivers are used to generate energy and in turn is used to provide water. Through hydropower, rivers provide 17% of global electricity generation (Ren21, 2016). Bhutan utilizes its abundance of rivers for country development and revenue generation through selling electricity to India. Countries like Norway and Switzerland also depend almost entirely on hydropower to meet their electricity energy needs. Despite the inherent connection between energy and rivers, decisions are routinely made without adequately understanding scientific and policy complexities of both. Planning in isolation for rivers and energy neglects joint opportunities for conservation to the detriment of efficiency and environment and there is a need to optimize through synergy between two sectoral needs and ecological