The Eagle and the Bear: A New History of Roman Scotland

By John H. Reid

For over three centuries, the inhabitants of North Britain faced the might of Rome, resulting in some of the most extraordinary archaeology of the ancient world.

This richly illustrated new history of Roman Scotland explores the complex, often tumultuous and frequently brutal interaction between the world's first superpower and the peoples who lived north of Hadrian's Wall.

With reference to the latest research and featuring all the key sites, it offers though-provoking re-assessments of many aspects of the story of the Romans in Scotland, from the loss of the IXth Legion and the reasons for building and maintaining Hadrian's Wall, to considering what spurred at least four Roman emperors to personally visit the edge of the empire.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Birlinn
• Release date: Jun 6, 2023
• ISBN: 9781788855808

John H. Reid

John H. Reid has had a lifelong fascination with Roman Scotland. He co-directed the Burnswark Project in Dumfriesshire, the ground-breaking archaeological dig of the only known Roman siege in Britain and has been Chairman of the Trimontium Trust in Melrose for the last 25 years. He has appeared on BBC TV and radio, is a regular speaker at major archaeological conferences and has been published widely in the academic and popular press. 

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Illustration

John Reid is chair of the Trimontium Trust in Melrose and has published and lectured widely on the Roman Iron Age. For two decades he has led the Trust’s research projects, most notably at Burnswark Hill. Recent work has culminated in the complete renovation of Scotland’s only museum dedicated to the period of the Roman invasion. Originally intending to study classics, he trained as a doctor specialising in diseases of the heart and lungs, but has now returned to his first love of Scotland’s early history.

‘The Eagle and the Bear is a fascinating account of the complex, and often violent, interactions between indigenous communities and Roman power in northern Britain. It is engagingly written and well-informed – a must read for anyone with an interest in Scotland’s past.’

Manuel Fernández-Götz, Abercromby Professor of Archaeology, University of Edinburgh

‘Probably the most complete history of Roman Scotland I’ve had the privilege to read. At once, scholarly, compellingly written and thought provoking, it brings a fresh perspective to the available evidence and provides genuine new insight into the study of the subject matter, with a forensic eye for detail. Most certainly a welcome addition to the genre.’

Douglas Jackson, author and creator of the Gaius Valerius Verrens series

Illustration

Winter has come. Housesteads Roman fort on Hadrian’s Wall, looking west.

Illustration

First published in 2023 by

Birlinn Ltd

West Newington House

Edinburgh eh9 1qs

10 Newington Road

www.birlinn.co.uk

Copyright © John H. Reid 2023

ISBN 978 1 78885 580 8

The right of John H. Reid to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical or photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the express written permission of the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Designed and typeset by Mark Blackadder

Printed and bound by PNB, Latvia

‘The eagle of the Roman army goes at the head of every legion – the king of birds, most powerful of them all. . .’

Josephus, Bellum Judiacum, on the First Romano-Jewish War

•

‘Laureolus gave up his naked flesh to a Caledonian bear . . .’

Martial, Liber Spectaculorum, on the inaugural games of the Colosseum

To my parents, Watson and Jenny,

who first sowed the seed and to

Erica, Simone, Jonathan and Scout,

whose unconditional love

helped nurture it

Contents

List of plates and figures

Acknowledgements

Introductory note

Foreword

  1. What’s in a name? How we tell the story of Scotland’s past

  2. Lost and found: the rediscovery of Roman Scotland

  3. Scotland before the Romans

  4. The gathering storm: a warning from the East

  5. Tracking the tempest

  6. Enter Agricola

  7. Smell the smoke: the post-Agricolan black hole

  8. Exit the IXth

  9. The Wall

10. Burnswark: dark deeds in Dumfriesshire

11. Hail Imperator : the Antonine invasion

12. A Wall too far?

13. Trouble up north: bribery and incursions

14. The African emperor and his brats

15. The post-Severan aftermath and the rise of the Picts

16. The man who changed the world: the coming of Constantine

17. Stilicho and Traprain Law, the harpooned whale

18. Entering the darkness

19. Conclusion: the Eagle and the Bear

Places to visit

Glossary

Further reading

Index

Illustration

Frontispiece. Artist’s impression of the interior of a Caledonian settlement.

List of plates and figures

Plates

  1. Detail, processional frieze, National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh

  2. Dun Carloway broch, Isle of Lewis

  3. Gold torcs, Blair Drummond, Perthshire

  4. Roman campaign axes from Newstead

  5. Horse skulls from Newstead

  6. Housesteads fort showing field systems

  7. The Vallum and Hadrian’s Wall looking east

  8. Burnswark Hill from the north

  9. Hoard of Roman lead sling bullets, Burnswark

10. Bow Castle broch, Scottish Borders

11. Rough Castle Roman fort, Antonine Wall

12. Capital of the Sol altar from Inveresk

13. Modern ‘distance’ sculpture, Cow Wynd, Falkirk

14. Antonine Wall ditch traversing Croy Hill

15. Roman pillars from Bar Hill Fort

16. Jasper intaglio of Caracalla, Newstead

17. Traprain Law from the south-west

18. The Traprain Treasure

19. Dumbarton Rock

Figures

    1. Map of Roman Iron Age Scotland

    2. Theodor Mommsen

    3. Erasure of Geta – damnatio memoriae

    4. Mosaic of bestiarii and a bear, Roman villa, Nennig, Germany

    5. Excavations at Mumrills in the 1920s

    6. Sir George Macdonald in the ditch at Mumrills

    7. a) Vercingetorix at Alesia;

b) Arminius at Teutoburg Forest

    8. Thornycroft’s Boudicca sculptural group, London Embankment

    9. Schematic of the Roman invasion of Britain

  10. Timothy Pont’s map

  11. Arthur’s O’on replica, Penicuik House

  12. Burnswark plan by General Roy

  13. Cultivation terraces at a) Chatto Craig and

b) Hownam forts, Scottish Borders

  14. The ‘Dying Gaul’, Capitoline Museum, Rome

  15. Reconstruction of Ptolemy’s map of North Britain

  16. Woden Law hillfort

  17. Detail of the Bridgeness sculpture

  18. Settlement patterns of Iron Age Scotland

  19. a) Wheelhouse, Grimsay

b) broch village at Gurness, Orkney

  20. Reconstructed crannog

  21. a) Chesters hillfort, East Lothian

b) Eildon Hill North

  22. Etruscan tombs and grave goods at Cerveteri, north of Rome

  23. Drawing of Ruberslaw hoard

  24. Roman soldier with trophy head on Trajan’s Column

  25. Maslow’s ‘hierarchy of need’ as applied to archaeology

  26. Masada, Israel, showing Roman siege ramp

  27. a) The Colosseum

b) detail from the Arch of Titus in Rome

  28. Roman forts and camps, Chew Green, Northumberland

  29. a) Roman military installations in Britain

b) non-military structures

  30. Dendrochronology

  31. Statue of Agricola, Fréjus, Côte d’Azur

  32. a) Roman lead pipes from Chester

b) Agricola’s campaigns

  33. Battlefield detritus from Kalkriese

  34. Suggested site of the battle of Mons Graupius

  35. a) Rampart of Ythan Wells Agricolan-period camp

b) Northern campaign camps

  36. a) Deskford carnyx

b) Agricolan forts

  37. Inchtuthil plateau

  38. Plan of Inchtuthil fortress

  39. Inchtuthil nail hoard

  40. Vindolanda spatha

  41. Burnt layers at Birrens

  42. Abandoned weapons at Newstead

  43. Artist’s impression of the last stand of the IXth

  44. IXth Legion tile stamps

  45. VIIIIth Legion inscription from York

  46. Rosemary Sutcliff in her study

  47. The Silchester eagle

  48. Bronze diploma of Gemellus

  49. Paterae on Trajan’s Column

  50. Roman patera found in Castle Craig broch

  51. a) The Dowalton Loch patera

b) Roman ironwork hoard, Carlingwark Loch

  52. Roman finds from non-Roman sites in southern Scotland

  53. Scout at Hadrian’s Wall

  54. The Maginot Line

  55. Reconstructions of Roman walls at a) Saalburg and b) Vindolanda; c) Wall map

  56. Hanoverian fortress, Fort George near Inverness

  57. Hadrian’s Wall ditch cut through rock at Limestone Corner

  58. a) Defensive pits on the berm at Byker in Newcastle;

b) the Wall in winter

  59. Milecastle 39 and Sycamore Gap

  60. The Military Way

  61. The Vallum at Limestone Corner

  62. Metal detectorist at Burnswark

  63. Burnswark Hill and Roman siege camps from the east

  64. The plan of Burnswark siege complex

  65. Some of George Jobey’s finds from Burnswark

  66. a) Burnswark sling bullets, 2016

b) slingshot distribution map

c) slingshot with holes

  67. Altar to Victory from Rough Castle

  68. a) Newstead annexes as cropmarks

b) Lollius Urbicus inscription, Corbridge

  69. The Urbicus family mausoleum at Tiddis, Algeria

  70. a) Artist’s impression of the attack on Leckie broch

b) possible heat-cracked ballista ball

  71. Map of the Antonine Wall

  72. a) Antonine Wall ditch at Croy

b) Limes ditch at Saalburg

  73. a) Pits on the berm of the Antonine Wall, Falkirk

b) lilia, Rough Castle

  74. Structural elements, Antonine Wall

  75. Lines of carbonised turf in the rampart at Rough Castle

  76. The Croy Three, probably a grave marker from Croy Hill

  77. Magnetometry of Newstead fort showing annexes

  78. Ardoch fort on the outskirts of Braco

  79. Roman settlement at Inveresk

  80. Sol altar from the Mithraeum at Inveresk

  81. The Bridgeness stone

  82. Glasgow–Edinburgh railway bisecting Castlecary Roman fort

  83. The Synton hoard, Trimontium Museum, Melrose

  84. Inscription of Calpurnius Agricola, Corbridge

  85. Evidence of burning at Newstead

  86. Coin of Commodus

  87. Roy’s plan of the likely Severan camp at Channelkirk

  88. Bust of Severus

  89. The Cramond lioness

  90. Gateway carving from Carpow

  91. Traiectus coin of Caracalla

  92. Enlarged granaries at Corbridge

  93. The marching camp at Carnwath

  94. Carlungie souterrain

  95. Falkirk coin hoard, National Museum Scotland

  96. Artist’s impression of a Pictish warrior

  97. Class I symbol stone

  98. Class II symbol stone

  99. a) and b) Pictish symbols

100. a) Pictish neck-chains

b) detail of locking ring

101. Turricula or Roman dice tower from Bonn

102. The Pictish fort of Burghead from the north

103. Constantine the Great, York Minster

104. a) Gold crossbow brooch, Moray Firth

b) Erickstanebrae brooch

105. Stilicho diptych

106. Progressively diminishing coinage

107. Traprain Law

108. Traprain treasure detail

109. Denarius of Trajan and silver penny of King Harold

110. Map of the post-Roman kingdoms

111. Pictish cross slab

112. Pictish cemetery at Garbeg

Acknowledgements

Most books are written with the generous assistance of others. For their scholarship, exchange of ideas and major contributions of time and energy, I am indebted to many people. With respect to previous works, I have tried to present here a broad perspective of early Scotland’s experience of the Roman invasion by incorporating material gleaned from recent investigations and contemporary debate that builds upon a canon of fine scholarship stretching back many years. Pointers to some of the many publications are provided at the end of this book.

In response to the great asymmetries of power and existential crises that played out in North Britain at the time of the Roman occupation, this work documents something of what was a 300-year collision between two very different cultures. For stimulating my interest in that confrontation and in the potentially devestating effects of contact with Rome’s seductive military machine, I wish to thank Manuel Fernández-Götz and Nico Roymans for their inspirational work in the field of conflict archaeology. Although this book is founded on fifty years of personal pursuit of the Roman army and its interaction with the peoples of ancient Scotland my horizon widened as my appreciation of non-Roman perspectives grew. For pointing me in the direction of a more balanced narrative, I am grateful to Kay Callander and Louisa Campbell, who introduced me to important indigenous themes I had not previously considered.

I am also grateful to those experts who have patiently tolerated my questions and challenges over many years. Knowingly or otherwise, their comments, arguments and contributions have allowed me to form many of the opinions expressed in this book (without them necessarily agreeing with any of its conclusions). I am particularly indebted to Fraser Hunter who has freely shared his prodigious knowledge of the material culture of Scotland’s Iron Age. I would also like to thank the many other scholars who have taken time to answer my enquiries, either by correspondence or by allowing themselves to be button-holed at many archaeological conferences over the last decade. These include Ian Armit, Geoff Bailey, Jo Ball, Paul Bidwell, Mike Bishop, Andrew and Barbara Birley, Chris Bowles, David Breeze, Richard Brickstock, James Bruhn, Dave Cowley, Andrew Fitzpatrick, Stephen Greep, Bill Griffiths, Bill Hanson, Nick Hodgson, Beccy Jones, Lesley Macinnes, Frances McIntosh, Gordon Noble, James O’Driscoll, Al Oswald, John Poulter, Tanja Romankiewicz, Eberhard Sauer, Niall Sharples, Matt Symonds, Richard Tipping, Alan Wilkins and Allan Wilson.

I wish to make special mention of colleagues from Germany who kindly provided information and access to important material from their areas of expertise. These include the late Sebastian Sommer whose genial personality and insightful perspectives of the Roman frontiers of Scotland and Germany will be sorely missed. Thanks also go to Ruth Beusing, Axel Posluschny, Regine Müller and Sabine Klein for generously providing much of the data that lies behind our improved understanding of events at Burnswark Hill and Trimontium. I am also grateful to Achim Rost and Susanne Wilbers-Rost for my initiation into the fascinating world of the Varusschlacht and the lessons to be learned from ancient battlefield debris, and to Holger von Grawert for helping me understand the intricacies of Roman military equipment. Great thanks also go to Jörg Sprave for his verve and ingenuity in ballistic experimentation.

I wish to particularly express my gratitude to Andrew Nicholson for his professionalism and archaeological rigour during our investigations at Burnswark, to Robin Edwins for his energy and logistical skills, to Derek and Sharon McLennan for their expert detecting survey, and to Sir John Buchanan-Jardine and Andrew Macgregor for their unstinting support and access to the site. Don Reid’s slinging expertise was also fundamental to experiments that radically altered our appreciation of Roman assault tactics.

It has been a privilege to know and correspond with Lawrence Keppie on Romano-Scottish topics for decades. My relationship with Professor Keppie goes back to when he was director of my first dig at Bothwellhaugh Roman bathhouse in the 1970s (even earlier if it should count that we briefly shared the same Latin teacher) and he has been an inspiration since. His theories of events at Burnswark and the fate of the IXth Legion have been influential in my thinking and his helpful replies to many queries have been invaluable.

I wish to thank Strat Halliday for walking with me in the Borders hills to explore the nature of cultivation terraces and for opening my eyes to the myriad indigenous Iron Age settlements that dot the landscape of southern Scotland.

I am indebted to Danny Syon of the Israel Antiquities Authority who gave up a considerable portion of his time to introduce me to the archaeological wonders of Roman period Israel. The experience of hearing him read from the Jewish War atop the siege ramp of Masada and at Titus’ breach in the wall of Gamla sparked a radical realignment of my thinking about the nature of siege warfare and the connectedness of contemporary events.

I wish to thank my children, Simone and Jonathan who have tolerated their father’s behaviour for far too long and for allowing me to take them on innumerable Roman excursions, including two memorable expeditions to the West Bank and the Golan. They have not only borne my Roman fixation with fortitude but also openly encouraged it. And here’s to you, Scout – for a decade of canine companionship, irrespective of the weather – as you cheerfully accompanied us over ditch and rampart.

My special gratitude goes to my exceptionally understanding wife Erica who has not only put her own projects on hold to allow this one to reach fruition but has also done a masterful job of editing out much superfluous material for which I am sure the reader will be grateful. Her resilient personality, which has propped me up on several occasions, is as solid as the foundation of the broch at the bottom of her family croft on the Isle of Lewis.

Finally, I would like to thank my editor and publisher, Hugh Andrew, for many helpful suggestions and for his own special insights into post-Roman and Early Medieval Scotland, and Andrew Simmons and James Rose at Birlinn for their help in guiding this work to completion.

Image credits

Many thanks are owed to Alan Braby (20, 23, 36b, 43, 55c, 70, 96, 99a & b, frontispiece and p.234) for his atmospheric artwork and to Jan Dunbar (1, 9, 15, 29a & b, 32b, 64, 74, 86) for her high-quality drawings and diagrams. Thanks also go to Margaret Wilson, picture librarian at NMS, and Sarah Dutch at HES archives for helping me source material from their image libraries. The author and publisher would also like to acknowledge thanks for permission to reproduce the following illustrations: AOC archaeology 80; Paul Bidwell 58a; M.C. Bishop 38; Ruth Beusing/RGK 77; Chester Museum (author photo) 32a; Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society 41, 65; Christophe Finot, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons 31; Gerd Eichmann, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons 54; Mark Gerson (© National Portrait Gallery) 46; Hannes Grobe/AWI, CC BY-SA 2.5, via Wikimedia Commons 30; Historic Environment Scotland 19a, 56, 93; Historic Environment Scotland and courtesy of the Society of Antiquaries Scotland, 5, 6, 73b, 75; William Brassey Hole (photograph by Antonia Reeve) courtesy National Galleries of Scotland colour plate 1; LVR LandesMuseum Bonn 101; Pablo Llopis, SERF Project, University of Glasgow 50; Loescher & Petsch via Wikimedia Commons 2; Los Angeles County Museum Image © Museum Associates 104b; Derek McLennan 62; Myrabella via Wikimedia Commons 7a; Image © National Library of Scotland 12, 87; National Museum of Scotland (Images © National Museums Scotland) 36a, 51, 89, 108, and colour plates 3, 4, 5, 12, 16, 18; Andrew Nicholson 66b and colour plate 9; Nouçeiba, CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons 69; Carole Raddato CC BY-SA 2.0 47; José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro CC BY-SA 4.0 2; Tom Ritson 83; Sodabottle via Wikimedia Commons 27b; TimeTravelRome via Wikimedia Commons 4; © Trustees of the British Museum 48, 91; York Museums Trust: http://yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk/ CC BY-SA 4.0 45; Vindolanda Trust 40; Thomas Wolf, www.foto-tw.de, CC BY-SA 3.0 DE, via Wikimedia Commons 7b. All other diagrams, images and aerial photographs by the author.

Introductory note

This book is about early Scotland’s contact with the Roman Empire and almost all the events described take place in the Christian era – dates are therefore AD unless otherwise stated. Since the names of areas of North Britain and the peoples who inhabited them were either not defined or were altered considerably during this period, specific titles are used only where possible and generic terms such as Scotland and Caledonians are employed for convenience. The term ‘native’ (literally meaning a person born in an area) where used, describes an indigenous inhabitant and carries no derogatory connotation.

When describing distances, Roman units of measurement, such as miles or paces, may be employed but wherever appropriate, measurements will be converted to metric units. Surface areas of camps and forts will be quoted in acres rather than hectares owing to the continued use of the former in a substantial body of modern scholarship.

1 Roman mile = 1,000 paces = 5,000 Roman feet

1 Roman mile = 0.92 Statute miles = 1.48km

1 Roman pace = 5 Roman feet = 1.48m

1 Roman foot = 11.65 inches = 296mm

Abbreviations

BAR British Archaeological Reports

BM British Museum

HES Historic Environment Scotland

LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging

NMS National Museums Scotland

RGK Römisch-Germanische Kommission

SAS Society of Antiquaries of Scotland

Illustration

1. Map of Roman Scotland showing Roman military sites and native centres of power.

Foreword

Many aspects of Roman Scotland remain enigmatic – even the name itself is misleading. The country was never really ‘Roman’ at all, and certainly not colonised the way England and Wales were. At best, the empire managed to intermittently occupy the land to the south of the Highland Line and at worst, the Romans kept Scotland and its inhabitants at arm’s length with, in the end, little attempt at civil development. But for over 300 years the Roman army, the most fearsome fighting force of the ancient world, was regularly pitched northwards, spurred on by imperial will. During this turbulent period at least six high-ranking generals, who either were or would become Roman emperors – literally masters of the ancient world – would take a personal interest in invading or annexing this small country. The onslaught of course was not directed against the landscape, but against the flesh and blood of the indigenous population. So why did the world’s first truly intercontinental superpower expend so much time and resource directing its military might at what must have been a comparatively modest group of tribes?

It is not only this broad question of motivation that remains without consensus, but also much of the detail – such as the purpose of the Walls (Antonine and Hadrianic), the reasons for Roman advances and retreats and the causes of other singular events such as the apparent disappearance of the IXth Legion. In recent decades many scholars have proposed a variety of solutions to these conundrums, but modern explanations have a tendency to pacify the past and conflict has played a lesser role in the historical narrative. In contrast, early commentators were in little doubt about the nature of the relationship between Roman and native in the north of Britain. While acknowledging the superiority of Roman arms, authorities such as Mommsen (1885), Macdonald (1934) and Richmond (1955) suggested that the Caledonians and their successors, the Picts, represented a significant military obstacle to the invaders. Such an assumption appeared logical – since the indigenous peoples had been dispossessed of their ancestral lands, why wouldn’t they resist? The story of this struggle appeared to be supported by comparatively reliable Roman literary sources such as the great historians Tacitus and Dio. The physical evidence of centuries of frontier warfare was also there to see – the extraordinary offensive-defensive engineering of the Walls of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius with their hinterlands bristling with forts and fortlets, which in turn supported a force of Roman auxiliary soldiers unparalleled in the empire. Scotland also boasted one of the highest concentrations of campaign camps in the Roman world, silent testimony to numerous incursions by the Roman army. Now, however, it is suggested that indigenous hillforts should no longer be seen as strongholds, but simple farms with little defensive purpose. Multiple ramparts, both Roman and native, are currently interpreted as status symbols and formidable Roman frontiers have lost their military function to be interpreted as imperial vanity projects. Wrecked forts and tumbled brochs have become a long series of accidents or victims of shoddy renovation – the concept of concerted confrontation has become trivialised. The warlike Caledonians and Picts whose resistance once precipitated the wrath of Septimius Severus, have been converted into timid tribesmen, desperate for imperial largesse, and eager to be ‘Romanised’. The indigenous peoples are now represented as irritating cattle rustlers or dazzled bystanders who looked on in awe as the legions came and went. In the words of one modern author the northern tribes have been described as: ‘an enthusiastic rabble’ and ‘such military action that did take place . . . fell into the category . . . of cattle-theft and petty banditry’ (Corby 2010).

Illustration

2. Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903) German historian and early commentator on the geopolitics of Roman Scotland.

Is this perception biased? A book about Roman frontiers (Breeze 1982) appeared to presage this phenomenon. It suggested that the ultimate insult to the peoples of North Britain was for them to be written out of history by others, something that not only had academic portent but also was loaded with ideological consequence. In his landmark treatise Ways of Seeing (1972), the art historian John Berger pointed out ‘a people . . . which is cut off from its own past is far less free to choose and to act as a people . . . than one able to situate itself in history’. It presented the chilling possibility that what may be happening, accidentally or otherwise, was a modern form of damnatio memoriae.

Damnatio memoriae

The Latin term given to the systematic erasure of the records of existence of an enemy of the state. The Romans believed the ultimate punishment for opposing the will of Rome was not only to physically chasten an individual by torture and death (often including the culprit’s family) but also to expunge any historical trace they had ever existed. Graphically illustrated by the many defaced Roman images or stone inscriptions from across the empire, damnatio was decreed to happen not only to public records but to private property as well.

Illustration

3. This painted panel – the socalled Berlin Tondo – portrays the Severan royal family. The face of Geta (lower left) has been erased by an act of damnatio memoriae ordered by his fratricidal brother Caracalla (lower right).

Indeed, it has been argued in a major journal that there are only polarised views of Roman Scotland, dependent on one’s personal inclination and that this phenomenon colours all historical and archaeological interpretation: either pro-Roman in which Roman supremacy is always a given, or pro-Caledonian where the northern tribes present a major threat to Roman interests (Breeze 2014). Unfortunately, this hypothesis invites one to subconsciously adopt a factional position and has the tendency to write off any argument as hopelessly flawed by personal prejudice. Is it possible then to disentangle, as Macaulay put it, the interplay between reason and emotion?

Prejudice aside, over the last half century, the paradigm has undoubtedly shifted from the ebb and flow of Iron Age warfare to one of cold costbenefit analysis, making it appear that Roman aggression was only checked by the calculation of a poor financial return for the effort involved in annexing a wild