Global Perspectives on the Transmission of Zoonotic RNA Viruses from Wild Animal Species to Humans: Zoonotic, Epizootic, and Anthropogenic Viral Pathogens

By Jayashree Seema Nandi

Global Perspectives of the Transmission of Zoonotic RNA Viruses from Wild Animal Species to Humans: Zoonotic, Epizootic, and Anthropogenic Transmission Viral Pathogens elaborates on the current knowledge surrounding the transmission of zoonotic RNA viruses from different wild animal species to humans, including updates on the reverse transmission of pathogens to humans across the globe, with coverage of rodents, pigs, birds and primates. This reference goes beyond the phenomena occurring in African and American regions to provide further study of zoonotic pathogens from the entire world, including various parts of Asia such as India.

The book comprehensively covers new knowledge on many diverse wild primate species for a global perspective on the phenomena of cross-species transmissions of pathogenic RNA viruses. Against the backdrop of the current global Covid-19 pandemic, this reference helps solve the problem of incomplete knowledge on global epidemiology of zoonotic RNA viruses. RNA viruses have pandemic, epidemic and epizootic potentials caused by Influenza viruses, Avian Influenza viruses, and other infectious viruses.

• Provides global coverage of the transmission of zoonotic infectious RNA viruses with epidemic and pandemic potentials in natural settings, with a new focus on India which is largely overlooked
• Provides data related to the transmission of different zoonotic RNA viruses, SIVs, SFVs and Influenza viruses in India
• Delivers background information on related RNA viruses like SARS, SRASCoV2, HIV-1, HIV-2, restriction factors, endogenous retroviruses and lentiviruses and other environmental data which is relevant for a comprehensive understanding of zoonotic events across the world

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: May 25, 2023
• ISBN: 9780443132698

Jayashree Seema Nandi

Dr. Nandi has extensive research experience in the field of infectious human viruses including HIV, IAV, HBV and natural infection of wild Indian primate species, that involves field work for blood sample collection from wild simians and laboratory-based research. She was among the first 3 authors worldwide to recognize the presence of Unintegrated DNA of HIV-1 as a molecular marker for HIV/AIDS in early 1990's. She is responsible for the identification of 5 novel viruses including HIV-1 like Indian SIVs, IAV-like influenza virus naturally infecting wild Indian primates.

Book preview

Global Perspectives on the Transmission of Zoonotic RNA Viruses from Wild Animal Species to Humans

Zoonotic, Epizootic, and Anthropogenic Viral Pathogens

Jayashree Seema Nandi

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, NY, United States

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Preface

Introduction

Monkeypox epidemiology, various RNA viruses

Receptors

Chapter One. Zoonoses and anthroponoses: Reverse transmission of pathogens

1.1. Human and animal interplay in cross-species transmission: COVID-19 pandemic

1.2. Different wild animal host species susceptible to viral pathogens (Fig. 1)

1.3. Bat coronaviruses

1.4. Virus host interaction

1.5. Ebola virus, ZikaV, Nipah virus, dengue virus

Chapter two. Tissue compartments and organs related to Coronaviruses, lentiviruses, dengue, Zika, and Nipah viruses

2.1. Cellular receptors for influenza viruses

Chapter three. Nonhuman primate (NHP) species from India and Africa

3.1. Old World versus New World primate species

3.2. Asian primates

3.3. Asian primate species

3.4. Endangered primate species from northeast India

Chapter Four. Retroviral, lentiviral pathogens impacting human health

4.1. HIV-1, HIV-2 and SIVs

4.2. Lentiviruses: HIV-1, HIV-2, SIVs

4.3. Deltaretrovirus

4.4. Spumaviruses

Chapter Five. Ecology and evolution of RNA viruses

Chapter Six. Conservation of wildlife

Chapter Seven. Antiviral strategy

7.1. Antiviral therapy

7.2. Vaccines

Chapter Eight. Chronic asymptomatic and symptomatic patients

Chapter Nine. Discussion and summary

9.1. Primate restriction factors

Index

Copyright

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Dedication

I wish to dedicate my book to my late father, Dr. Bibhas Chandra Mitra, B.Sc, MBBS.

He taught me to love Nature and ask valid, logical questions, and above all inculcated a strong sense of honesty, integrity, and fairness.

Preface

The book entitled "Global Perspectives on the Transmission of Zoonotic RNA Viruses from Wild Animal Species to Humans: Zoonotic, Epizootic, and Anthropogenic Viral Pathogens" deals with pathogenic RNA viruses of public health importance, written by Jayashree Seema Nandi, an established international Indian American molecular virologist. The current global pandemic scenario that started in 2019 and still continues in some parts of the world is caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV2) virus. It is a zoonotic virus, which was transmitted most likely from infected bats to humans, although the animal species of origin and whether an intermediate animal host was involved from the animal to human transmission chain is not known with any degree of certainty.

Pathogens don't recognize global boundaries. These viral pathogens impact the human population across the world. Because the respiratory viruses are transmitted by air, they spread easily from one infected person to the other. Covering the face and nose is an important way to mitigate the transmission of these respiratory viruses. As of now, specific antiviral drugs are not available, corticosteroids are prescribed to control symptomatic infection.

It is not feasible to manufacture tailor-made vaccine for each and every variant of SARS CoV2, although mRNA vaccines are promising to broadly counteract many viral variants.

It is well documented that different variant forms SARS CoV2 have a range of pathogenicity and transmissibility, that have been described as Variants of Concern (VOC). The Omicron variant for instance is highly pathogenic and has its own Subvariant forms.

Other zoonotic viruses like HIV-1, HIV-2, Zika virus, Ebola virus, Dengue virus are all RNA viruses and included in the list of pathogenic RNA viruses.

To emphasize the significance of animal to human transmission route, a brief mention of the Monkeypox virus (MPXV), is also included. This infection, initially reported in Africa starting in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 1970, has now been reported from other parts of the globe. The number of monkeypox infection has dramatically increased. This sounded an alarm of the potential of spreading of the virus throughout the USA. It is a pathogenic DNA virus. There are no specific treatments for the monkeypox virus infection; existing antivirals shown to be effective against smallpox may slow monkeypox spread.

A chapter on differences between exogenous, endogenous, and recombinant viruses is also included.

In this book, the author illustrates different aspects of zoonotic virus infection in specific chapters, each followed by a list of references for further reading to elaborate and substantiate current knowledge on epidemiology, ecology, evolution, molecular virology of viral genomes, host restriction factors, etc., spread out in nine chapters, as outlined in the Table of Contents, pertaining to the zoonotic RNA viral infection from Africa, Americas and Asia including India. Several newer insights are provided based on the author's personal published contribution to the virology field that expands the current knowledge base.

Because of the intrinsic host-pathogen interaction and ongoing conflicts, the area of zoonotic viruses is continuously evolving. Rapid changes in the field include the development of antiviral drugs and vaccines to mitigate the harmful effects of RNA virus infection.

Introduction

Abstract

Cross-species transmission of pathogens is a dynamic process, giving rise to epizootic (temporary infection), endemic (ongoing infection in defined geographic regions), and pandemic infection (spreading across the world) as seen in the current COVID-19 pandemic, which depends on existing conditions. Most viral pathogens causing epidemics and pandemics are zoonotic, emerge from wildlife reservoirs like SARS CoV2, HIV-1, HIV-2, and influenza viruses. Infection by H1N1 Influenza virus impacts humans and wild nonhuman Indian primates, reported by me recently. Migratory cranes are infected by the bird flu virus, H5N1HPAIV, which was an epizootic infection (2021, 2022). In Europe and North America bird flu that is currently running amok (2021–22) fatally impacting poultry, is caused by H5N1HPAIV. Global AIV infection poses a significant risk to vulnerable species. It gives the virus the opportunity to spill over into other hosts. Including humans which is rare. So far only two cases of bird to human transmissions of HPH5N! have been reported since October 2021, one each from the UK and the United Sates, but this phenomenon might show an upward trend soon. The migration route of wild birds determines when and where the infection will appear next. Europe, Asia, and Africa have had many flare-ups of HPAIV infections since the late nineteenth century. The earlier outbreaks could be contained by culling affected flocks and kept the disease from spreading further.

However, since the early 2000s, a drastic spread of avian flu among wild birds has been noted. The disease also seems to be spreading to mammals more frequently. These unprecedented patterns of transmission mean that the virus infecting wild animals has mutated, which is unusual for North American AIVs. HPAIV infection was detected in wild birds in the US only once before, between 2014 and 2016 when wild birds spread the disease from Eurasia to Alaska. That outbreak led to the deaths of more than 50 million domestic birds in the United States, causing a loss of US$3 billion. The Geological Survey of Alaska Science Center, Anchorage reported subsequent containment of the HPAIV infection.

In December 2021, HPH5N1 AIV reappeared in North America, this time in the east, apparently by making a short journey across the Bering Strait to western North America, through the 'back door'. Since then, the disease has been circulating uncontrollably in wild birds. The cramped conditions in poultry farms promote further viral spread.

In 2019 and 2021, I reported molecular evidence for the transmission of two other zoonotic RNA viruses at the human-monkey interface in Rajasthan forests for the first time, (a) the apathogenic Simian Foamy Viruses (SFV), and (b) H1N1 Influenza A virus (IAV)-like virus, infecting wild Indian rhesus monkeys via anthropogenic transmission from infected humans to wild monkeys. The result needs to be investigated further to decipher possible mutations in the viral envelope gene to adapt to the host receptor proteins, which is the first point of contact between invading pathogens and the human host.

Because of the religious status of monkeys in India, there has long been a man-monkey interaction. Now it has transformed into man-monkey conflict because of the dwindling natural habitats of the monkeys caused by deforestation and unplanned development of roads to the forested regions. Aggressive monkey attacks are frequently reported in the local Media till date. In the absence of their natural food like buds, a small insect on the tree barks, and monkeys move near human dwellings in search of food, biting and scratching people to snatch food items. Unrecognized zoonotic pathogens might exist in these wild animals that can potentially endanger human health. Viral epidemiology and ecology are ever-evolving phenomena and must be investigated regularly with necessary financial support.

India is an under-explored region for zoonotic viral infection. This is mainly because of difficulties with sample collection here. It is extremely difficult to obtain permission from the Forest and Wildlife Department government authorities to collect wild simian blood samples for surveillance of viral infectious diseases.

RNA viruses have long been a particular concern for global public health. It is because of the error-prone nature of viral RNA polymerase enzyme (RNA dependent RNA Polymerase: RdRp). This results in a high rate of mutations in the viral genome. RNA viruses have a well-documented potential for adaptation to different animal host species including humans. Evolving zoonotic pathogenic diseases in different countries across the world must be investigated continuously.

For example, Monkeypox is a zoonotic DNA virus which is transmitted to humans from animals with symptoms very similar to those seen in the past in smallpox patients with characteristic prominent skin rashes, fever and myalgia, although it is clinically less severe than smallpox. This was reported in the third week of May 2022. Monkeypox infection occurs in Central and West Africa, often in proximity to tropical rainforests and might have a sexual mode of transmission. The infection is increasingly appearing in urban areas, from different parts of the US, UK, Germany, Spain, India, and other countries.

RNA viruses vary widely and have markedly specific genome structures and replication cycles, infecting different hosts. These viruses possess different propensities for disease, and experience variable rates of mutation and recombination. The generation and fixation of mutations over different time periods can be detected by a careful investigation which defines evolutionary changes that occur in the viral genome. Hence, RNA viruses provide a useful 'natural laboratory' to visualize evolutionary processes in real time, as observed during single-disease outbreaks. The utility of RNA viruses in experimental assays is helped by their small genomes, in which mutations often result in major phenotypic effects.

RNA viruses have been used to test a variety of evolutionary theories and bioinformatic analyses.

RNA viruses experience a form of population robustness against the impact of deleterious mutations to the virus. Positive-strand RNA viruses often use large complexes of host cellular membranes for genome replication which they actively modify to construct viral replication scaffolds. Positive-strand RNA viruses of animals also use a common strategy to express RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase (RdRp).

Negative-strand RNA viruses use the genomic sense strand as the template for synthesis of all mRNAs. In contrast, viruses that use an ambisense coding strategy transcribe some mRNAs from the copy genome. There are virus families like Reoviruses in which some members are considered negative-strand RNA viruses while others use an ambisense strategy. These two strategies are closely related.

Families of negative-strand RNA viruses include Orthomyxoviridae (Influenza viruses), Paramyxoviridae (parainfluenza viruses), Rhabdoviridae (Vesicular Stomatitis virus), Bornaviridae (BoDV-1) that infects animals like horses, rhesus monkeys, tree shrews, and rats), and Filoviridae (Ebola virus). The Bunyaviridae family includes some members that use a negative sense coding strategy and others that use an ambisense coding strategy.

Other zoonotic RNA viruses are recombinant and reassortant Avian and human Influenza Viruses, Lentiviruses HIV-1 and HIV-2, HIV-1 like SIVs, Spumaviruses, which has been used as vector in gene therapy, Zika Virus, Ebola and Nipah Viruses, Hantavirus, and Dengue virus.

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