Holiday Symbols & Customs, 5th Ed.

By Omnigraphics

A guide to the legend and lore behind the traditions, rituals, foods, games, animals, and other symbols and activities associated with holidays and holy days, feasts and fasts, and other celebrations.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Omnigraphics
• Release date: Jul 1, 2015
• ISBN: 9780780813656

Book preview

Holiday

Symbols and

Customs

5th Edition

Holiday

Symbols and

Customs

A Guide to the Legend and Lore Behind the Traditions, Rituals,

Foods, Games, Animals, and Other Symbols and Activities

Associated with Holidays and Holy Days, Feasts and Fasts, and

Other Celebrations, Covering Ancient, Calendar, Religious,

Historic, Folkloric, National, Promotional, and Sporting Events,

as Observed in the United States and Around the World

5th Edition

155 W. Congress, Suite 200

Detroit, MI 48226-1640

Omnigraphics, Inc.

Editorial Services provided by Omnigraphics, Inc., a division of Relevant Information, Inc.

Keith Jones, Managing Editor

Copyright © 2015 Relevant Information, Inc.

ISBN 978-0-7808-1364-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Holiday symbols and customs : a guide to the legend and lore behind the traditions, rituals, foods, games, animals, and other symbols and activities associated with holidays and holy days, feasts and fasts, and other celebrations, covering ancient, calendar, religious, historic, folkloric, national, promotional, and sporting events, as observed in the United States and around the world. -- 5th edition.

pages cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Summary: Describes the origins of over 365 holidays around the world. Explains where, when, and how each event is celebrated, with detailed information on the symbols and customs associated with the holiday. Includes contact information and web sites for related organizations-- Provided by publisher.

ISBN 978-0-7808-1364-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-7808-1365-6 (ebook)

1. Holidays. 2. Festivals. 3. Fasts and feasts.

GT390.T48 2015

392.26--dc23 2015012873

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

The information in this publication was compiled from sources cited and from sources considered reliable. While every possible effort has been made to ensure reliability, the publisher will not assume liability for damages caused by inaccuracies in the data, and makes no warranty, express or implied, on the accuracy of the information contained herein.

This book is printed on acid-free paper meeting the ANSI Z39.48 Standard. The infinity symbol that appears above indicates that the paper in this book meets that standard.

Printed in the United States

Table of Contents

Preface

Aboakyer Festival

Academy Awards

Advent

Akshaya Tritiya

Akwambo

Al-Hijra

Alasitas Fair

Alaska Day

All Souls’ Day

America’s Cup

Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Feast of the

Anzac Day

Aoi Matsuri

Apache Girls’ Sunrise Ceremony

April Fools’ Day

Arbor Day

Arctic Winter Games

Army-Navy Football Game

Asalha Puja

Ascension Day

Ash Wednesday

Ashura

Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Feast of the

Athabascan Stickdance

Autumn Equinox

Awoojoh

Awuru Odo Festival

Aztec New Fire Ceremony

Basket Dance

Bastille Day

Bayou Classic

Bella Coola (Nuxalk) Midwinter Rites

Beltane

Berber Bride Fair

Blessing of the Waters

Bodhi Day

Boston Marathon

Bouphonia

Braemar Highland Gathering

British Open

Burial of the Sardine

Burning Man Festival

Burns Night

Candlemas

Cannes Film Festival

Carnival

Chalma Pilgrimage

Chandan Yatra

Chinese New Year

Ching Ming

Christmas

Christmas Eve

Chrysanthemum Festival

Chung Yeung

Chusok

Cinco de Mayo

Columbus Day

Coming of Age Day

Compitalia

Confederate Memorial Day

Coptic New Year

Corpus Christi, Feast of

Crow Fair

Cup Match

Darwin Day

Daytona 500

Dewali

Día de los Muertos

Dionysia

Distaff Day

Dosmoche

Double Fifth

Double Seventh Festival

Durga Puja

Eagle Dance

Earth Day

Easter

Easter Monday

Ebisu Festival

Egungun Festival

Ember Days

Epiphany, Feast of the

Esala Perahera

Exaltation of the Cross, Feast of the

Father’s Day

Feast of Fools

Feast of the Dead

Feast of the Immaculate Conception

Festival of Seven Herbs

Fiesta de Santa Fe

Fiesta San Antonio

Flag Day

Floralia

Flower Communion

Flute Ceremony

Forgiveness Sunday

Fourth of July

Gai Jatra

Galungan

Ganesh Chaturthi

Ganna

Gauri Festival

Ghanta Karna

Gion Matsuri

Golden Globe Awards

Good Friday

Great Elephant March

Great New Moon Ceremony

Green Corn Dance

Gudi Padva

Guru Nanak’s Birthday

Guru Purnima

Guy Fawkes Day

Hajj

Halashashti

Halloween

Hanami

Hanukkah

Hari-Kuyo

Harvest Home Festival

Hemis Festival

Henley Royal Regatta

Hidrellez

Higan

Hina Matsuri

Hiroshima Peace Ceremony

Hogmanay

Hola Mohalla

Holi

Holocaust Memorial Day

Holy Innocents’ Day

Homowo

Hopi Snake Dance

Hungry Ghosts Festival

Id al-Adha

Id al-Fitr

Iditarod

Imbolc

Incwala

Indianapolis 500

Indra Jatra

International Day of Peace

Inti Raymi Festival

Ironman Triathlon World Championship

Iroquois Midwinter Ceremony

Janmashtami

Jhulan Yatra

Jidai Matsuri

John Canoe Festival

Juneteenth

Kamakura Matsuri

Karthikai Deepam

Kartika Snan

Kataklysmos Day

Kattestoet

Kentucky Derby

Keretkun

King Kamehameha Day

Kodomo-No-Hi

Korea National Foundation Day

Kristallnacht

Kumbh Mela

Kupalo Festival

Kwakiutl Midwinter Ceremonies

Kwanzaa

Labor Day

Lag Ba-Omer

Lammas

Lantern Festival

Laylat al-Bara’ah

Laylat al-Miraj

Laylat al-Qadr

Lazarus Saturday

Leap Year Day

Leif Erikson Day

Lemuralia

Lent

Li Ch’un

Lincoln’s Birthday

Lohri

Loi Krathong

Losar

Lotus, Birthday of the

Lughnasa

Luilak

Lupercalia

Mabon

Magha Puja

Mahavira Jayanti

Martenitza

Martin Luther King Jr. Day

Martinmas

MASI MAGHAM

Maskal

Maslenitsa

Masters Golf Tournament

Matsu Festival

Maundy Thursday

Mawlid al-Nabi

May Day

Memorial Day

Michaelmas

Mid-Autumn Festival

Mid-Lent Sunday

Midsummer Day

Miss America Pageant

Miwok Big Time

Monkey King Festival

Monlam

Moors and Christians Fiesta

Mother’s Day

Naadam

Nachi No Hi Matsuri

Naga Panchami

National Cherry Blossom Festival

Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Feast of the

Navajo Mountain Chant

Navajo Night Chant

Nawruz

New Yam Festival

New Year’s Day

New Year’s Eve

New York Gay Pride March

Niman Kachina Festival

Nineteen Day Fast

Nyepi

Obon Festival

Obzinky

October Horse Sacrifice

Odunde Festival

Odwira

Ogun Festival

Oktoberfest

Olympic Games

Onam

Oshogats

Our Lady of Guadalupe, Fiesta of

Palio, Festival of the

Palm Sunday

Panguni Uthiram

Parilia

Paro Tsechu

Paryushana

Passover

Pentecost

Pinkster

Pitra Paksa Festival

Plough Monday

Pongal

Pooram

Posadas, Las

Poson

Powamû Festival

Procession of the Swallow

Puck Fair

Purim

Pushkar Mela

Queen’s Birthday

Raksha Bandhan

Ram Navami

Ramadan

Rath Yatra

Reek Sunday

Ridvan

Rocket Festival

Rogation Days

Rose Bowl

Rosh Hashanah

Royal Ascot

Royal National Eisteddfod

Royal Ploughing Ceremony

Rushbearing Festival

Samhain

San Fermin Festival

San Gennaro Festival

San Jacinto Day

Sanja Matsuri

Saturnalia

Saut d’Eau Pilgrimage

Sechseläuten

Sennin Gyoretsu

Setsubun

Seville Fair

Shalako Ceremony

Shavuot

Shawnee Death Feast

Shichi-Go-San

Shick-Shack Day

Shivaratri

Shrove Tuesday

Simhat Torah

Sol

Songkran

Soyaluna

St. Andrew’s Day

St. Anthony of Padua, Feast of

St. Barbara’s Day

St. Basil’s Day

St. Blaise’s Day

St. Bridget’s Day

St. Casimir’s Day

St. Catherine’s Day

St. Christopher’s Day

St. David’s Day

St. Elmo’s Day

St. Francis of Assisi, Feast of

St. George’s Day

St. James the Apostle, Feast of

St. Joseph’s Day

St. Lucy’s Day

St. Mark’s Day

St. Mennas’s Day

St. Patrick’s Day

St. Stephen’s Day

St. Swithin’s Day

St. Sylvester’s Day

St. Thomas the Apostle’s Day

St. Urho’s Day

Sts. Peter and Paul, Feast Of

Sukkot

Summer Solstice

Sun Dance

Super Bowl Sunday

Sweetest Day

Tanabata

Tano Festival

Tazaungdaing Festival

Teej

Tenjin Matsuri

Terminalia

Tet

Thaipusam

Thanksgiving

Thesmophoria

Tihar

Timkat

Tisha be-Av

Tod Kathin

Tori-no-ichi

Tour de France

Tu Bishvat

Tulip Time Festival

Twelfth Night

Twenty-Four Hours of Le Mans

Umoja Karamu

Up Helly Aa

Urs of Data Ganj Bakhsh

Ute Bear Dance

Vaisakh

Valentine’s Day

Vasaloppet

Vasant Panchami

Vata Savitri

Vegetarian Festival

Vernal Equinox

Vesak

Veterans’ Day

Walpurgis Night

Wampanoag Powwow

Washington’s Birthday

Waso

Watch Night

Westminster Dog Show

White Nights Festival

Wianki Festival of Wreaths

Wild Horse Festival

Wimbledon

Wind Festival

Winter Solstice

World AIDS Day

World Cup Soccer

World Eskimo-Indian Olympics

World Series

Wuwuchim

Yaqui Easter Ceremony

Yemanja Festival

Yom Kippur

Bibliography

Appendix A: Calendars throughout History

Appendix B: Tourism Information Sourcesfor North America

Appendix C: Tourism Information Sources for Countries around the World

Appendix D: Entries by Type

Appendix E: Entries by Symbol and Custom

General Index

Preface

eople everywhere gather to celebrate many different types of holidays and festivals: religious holidays, such as Christmas and Ramadan; calendar/ seasonal festivals, such as New Year’s and the Summer Solstice; national holidays, such as Thanksgiving and Bastille Day; sporting events, such as the Daytona 500 and World Cup Soccer; promotional days, such as Earth Day and World AIDS Day; historic observances such as Guy Fawkes Day and Juneteenth, as well as ancient and folkloric days, such as May Day and Halloween. Holidays highlight the day-to-day lives of people of all cultures and reflect their history and identity. Through the ritual of commemoration, we honor the past, mark the present, and anticipate the future.

Symbols and customs associated with holidays emerge, migrate, undergo transformations, vary among different peoples and places, and sometimes fade away. Holiday Symbols and Customs, 5th Edition, provides an introduction to the myriad ways in which people celebrate and the meanings attached to these traditions. It also presents the background of over 365 of these holidays and describes more than 1,100 symbols and customs associated with them.

Audience

Holiday Symbols and Customs can be used by students for class assignments, by general readers interested in holidays, and by teachers and librarians gathering information for units on holiday celebrations. The essays are written in a style designed to make them accessible to both school-age and adult readers. The book is organized in a way that makes information on specific holidays and customs easy to locate.

The Plan of the Work

Holiday Symbols and Customs includes entries that are arranged alphabetically by holiday name. Holiday entries begin with bold-faced headings that outline the following:

Name of Holiday including alternate names in parentheses, where appropriate

Type of Holiday, identifying whether it is an ancient, calendar/seasonal, folkloric, historic, national, promotional, religious, or sporting holiday

Date of Observation, giving both specific and movable dates, including any variants in different parts of the world

Where Celebrated, outlining in which cities, states, or countries and for which religions a holiday is commemorated

Symbols and Customs, listing the symbols and customs associated with each holiday

Colors, noting those associated with the holiday, if any, as well as their symbolic meaning

Related Holidays, showing other holidays in the book associated with this particular celebration

This first section is followed by a brief essay on the Origins of each holiday, including historic and folkloric information on the background of the commemoration. This is followed by a section on the Symbols and Customs attached to the holiday. Each Symbol or Custom is listed in alphabetical order, with detailed information on its origin and meaning. Each entry ends with a section on Contacts and Websites, providing additional resources for those who want to attend an event or find out more about how it is celebrated.

Within the essays, cross-references to symbols and customs found in that specific holiday entry are set in small capital letters. Cross-references to holiday entries elsewhere in the book appear in bold-faced capital letters.

Because the study of holiday symbols and customs is in no way an exact science, the basis for the essays are the legend, lore, and history of what is known about each holiday. These include information about celebrations that have occurred since the dawn of humankind, such as those commemorating the seasons and the harvest, as well as events that are of more recent origin. Many of the essays trace how ancient celebrations have evolved in the modern era and how some have been absorbed into modern religious or national festivals. As such, the essays delve into how holiday symbols and customs reflect on the evolution of society itself.

New in This Edition

Updated Coverage for Existing Entries

Existing entries—those from the previous edition—have been supplemented with additional information related to the holiday or event, contact addresses have been added, and websites have been updated.

New Entries

Forty-nine new entries have been added to this edition, covering a wide range of topics. Some examples include the following:

Burns Night, an annual celebration of Scotland’s national poet, Robert Burns;

Cup Match, a national holiday in Bermuda that combines a century-old cricket rivalry with observance of two important historic events;

Monkey King Festival, a popular festival that celebrates a character from a 16th century Chinese novel;

St. Mark’s Day, which Venice observes with the Festa di San Marco in honor of its patron saint;

Umoja Karamu, an African American unity feast designed to promote solidarity and appreciation of African American heritage and history.

The selection shown here demonstrates the breadth of coverage in the many new entries in this new edition.

New Appendix

Entries by Symbol and Custom - This new appendix allows readers to easily view the names of holidays or events from around the world that feature a particular symbol or custom.

Other Features

Calendars Throughout History - This appendix provides an overview of calendar systems around the world and explains various secular and religious calendars, including the Chinese, Hindu, Jain, Buddhist, Sikh, Mayan, Aztec, Babylonian and Egyptian, Zoroastrian, Julian, Jewish, Islamic, Gregorian, Christian, and Baha’i calendars.

Tourism Information Sources - Two appendices list tourism organizations for North America, including all U.S. states, Canada, and Mexico, and for countries around the world. Each listing provides full contact information, including names, addresses, phone and fax numbers, and websites, where available.

Entries by Type - This appendix lists the entries in Holidays Symbols and Customs by type of holiday. Some events may be listed under more than one category, as applicable. The holiday types are in this order:

Ancient

Calendar/Seasonal

Folkloric

Historic

National

Promotional

Religious (organized alphabetically by entry name)

Religious (organized alphabetically by religion)

Sporting

Bibliography - An extensive Bibliography lists sources consulted in the preparation of this volume and recommended sources for further reading.

General Index - The volume ends with a subject index, listing all countries, nationalities, names, symbols, customs, and other terms found in the text. The subject index includes the names of holidays, festivals, and celebrations; people and organizations; place names (U.S. cities and states, as well as other nations); the names of houses of worship; monuments and historic sites; saints and deities; religious groups and denominations; titles of musical, cinematic, theatrical, and literary works; and more.

A Note on Terminology

To designate eras, this volume uses the terms b.c.e. (before the common era) and c.e. (of the common era). b.c.e. refers to the period of time before year 1 on the Gregorian calendar, which is used throughout the western world (see Appendix A, Calendars throughout History). c.e. refers to the period of time beginning with year 1 on the Gregorian calendar. These terms are preferred here because they have no religious significance and are thus more neutral than the alternate terms, b.c. (before Christ) and a.d. (Anno Domino, the year of our Lord).

Your Comments Are Welcome

We welcome your comments on Holidays Symbols and Customs, 5th Edition, including suggestions for topics that you would like to see covered in future editions. Please address correspondence to:

Editor, Holidays Symbols and Customs, 5th Edition

Omnigraphics, Inc.

155 W. Congress, Suite 200

Detroit, MI 48226

Aboakyer Festival

(Aboakyir)

Type of Holiday: Religious (Effutu)

Date of Observation: First Saturday in May

Where Celebrated: Ghana

Symbols and Customs: Asafo Companies, Deer Hunt

ORIGINS

The Aboakyer Festival has been celebrated by the Effutu people, who were among the earliest settlers of Ghana, for several hundred years. It originated when the Effutu left Western Sudan and migrated to what is now the town of Winneba in the Central Region of Ghana. They brought their god, known as Penkye Otu, with them.

The Effutu wanted to celebrate their arrival in a new land and were told by their priest, who had discussed the matter with the gods, that they would have to make an annual human sacrifice. This seemed too high a price to pay, so the people appealed to Otu and he relented, saying that he would accept a live wildcat instead.

But when they tried to bring him a leopard, they discovered that leopards were extremely difficult and dangerous to bring back alive to be sacrificed. Eventually a bush buck, which resembles a deer, replaced the leopard, which is why the annual ceremony is often referred to as the Deer-Hunting Festival.

Before dawn on the first Saturday in May, members of the town’s two asafo companies meet at the beach to participate in purification rituals. They proceed first to where Penkye Otu is housed and then to the village chief’s palace, where they are received by the royal family. Then they set out for the bush in opposite directions, and the first to return with a live deer is declared the winner. Each team performs rituals designed to undermine the other team’s strength, but both Asafo companies want someone to win because failure to catch a deer is considered to be a very bad omen. The hunter who captures it carries it on his shoulder and returns in triumph with his group to the royal palace.

The Effutu chief kills the animal, and the meat is used to make a soup that is offered to Penkye Otu. This is followed by a night of drumming, singing, and dancing until dawn. The victorious hunters are treated like heroes for keeping Penkye Otu happy so that he will bring them a bountiful year.

SYMBOLS AND CUSTOMS

Asafo Companies

The word asafo means war people. There are twenty-four states located along Ghana’s Atlantic coast, and each state is governed by a paramount chief who rules over the lesser chiefs of towns and villages. There can be more than half a dozen Asafo companies in a single town, and rivalries among them are quite common.

The Asafo companies were at one time charged with defending the state, but their relationship to the Ghanaian government today is far from clear-cut. The traditional Effutu rulers use them to enforce their authority, and the companies often play a role when conflicts arise between the national militia and civilians. The Asafo elders play an important role in selecting new chiefs and act as advisers after a chief has been crowned. A chief who has the Asafo companies behind him rarely has to worry about challenges to his authority.

Deer Hunt

The traditional hunt to find a sacrificial deer lies at the heart of the Aboakyer Festival. At the time the festival was instituted, deer were plentiful in Ghana. But wildlife has been exploited here as it has in many other areas of the world, and capturing a live deer is no longer a simple matter. The deer population will probably continue to dwindle as long as people kill deer for food and those who ignore wildlife protection laws aren’t punished.

WEBSITES

Ghana Tourism Authority

www.ghana.travel

Ghana Home Page

www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/tourism/aboakyer.php

CONTACTS

Ghana Embassy

3512 International Dr. N.W.

Washington, DC 20008

Phone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]

www.ghanaembassy.org

Ghana Tourism

P.O. Box GP 3106

Accra

Phone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]

www.ghana.travel

Academy Awards

(The Oscars)

Type of Holiday: Promotional

Date of Observation: Late February or early March

Where Celebrated: Hollywood, California

Symbols and Customs: Gowns, Oscars, Red Carpet, Sealed Envelope

ORIGINS

Each year the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences grants awards to individuals of outstanding achievement in the world of film. Known as the Academy Awards, this glamorous awards ceremony gathers together hundreds of famous actors, actresses, directors, producers, writers, and film technicians. Although it is an invitation-only event, the ceremony is broadcast on television and reported all over the world. It takes place in late February or early March, with awards given for films released in the previous calendar year.

The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences is a professional organization composed of top-achieving individuals involved in the world of film-making. One of the organization’s goals is to encourage high quality work in the motion picture industry. For that reason the Academy instituted its annual awards ceremony.

When it was founded, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences included just thirty-six members. These days the Academy boasts over 6,000 voting members. At the first Academy Awards ceremony, fifteen individuals were honored for their contributions to the world of film. The following year just seven awards were given: best actor, best actress, best picture, best director, best writer, best cinema-tographer, and best art director. Currently, the Academy bestows awards in up to twenty-five different categories of achievement. Academy members vote on who will win the Academy Award. Although all members may vote in such general categories as best picture, voting in other categories is limited to members of that particular division. For example, only film editors may vote for the best film editing award.

The first Academy Awards ceremony occurred on May 16, 1929, with 270 people in attendance. The event took place in the banquet room of Hollywood’s Roosevelt Hotel. The banquet and awards ceremony were presided over by the actor Douglas Fairbanks, who was at that time the president of the Academy. Winners were honored with a statuette that came to be known as an oscar, a tradition that has continued until this day.

In that first year, the names of the award recipients were announced in advance. The following year the names of the winners were given in advance to the newspapers, which were asked not to publish the information until the ceremony was over. In 1940, the Los Angeles Times ignored the Academy’s request and broke the news before the start of the ceremony. As a result, the ceremony organizers devised a system whereby the results of the Academy’s balloting was kept secret even from Academy members. The results were revealed only when the sealed envelope containing the name of the winner was opened at the awards ceremony.

In 1930 the Academy Awards were the subject of a live radio broadcast. Radio coverage continued to provide the public with its only live access to the event until 1953, when the Academy Awards were broadcast on television for the first time. Today the Academy Awards broadcast is seen not only in the United States, but also in 100 different countries around the world.

Until 1942 the awards ceremony included a banquet for all the guests. This custom was discontinued the following year because each year the guest list grew longer and it simply became too difficult to combine the sumptuous meal with the awards ceremony. From 1943 on, the Academy Awards ceremony was held in theaters rather than in banquet halls. In the decades that followed, the event did not settle in a permanent home but instead shifted from theater to theater. In 2002 the Academy Awards ceremony was held at Hollywood’s Dolby Theater, and the event has remained there since that time.

SYMBOLS AND CUSTOMS

Gowns

The media often pays as much attention to the gowns worn by the actresses who attend the Academy Awards ceremony as it does to the winning films and performances. For this reason top fashion designers compete with one another to convince

Other Film Awards and Festivals

hough the Academy Awards ceremony is perhaps the most popular awards event in film, other organizations also acknowledge achievement in film. They include:

Broadcast Film Critics Association has presented the Critics’ Choice awards since 1996

www.bfca.org

Directors Guild of America has presented awards for directorial achievement since 1948

www.dga.org

Hollywood Foreign Press Association has presented the Golden Globe Awards since 1943

www.hfpa.org/goldenglobeawards/index.html

In addition, several film festivals worldwide provide an important outlet for recognizing film-making talent, including:

Berlinale, the Berlin International Film Festival inaugurated in 1951, takes place in Berlin, Germany, each Februar

www.berlinale.de/en/HomePage.html

Cannes Film Festival began in 1947 and is held in Cannes, France, each May

www.festival-cannes.fr/index.php/en

Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah, has highlighted independent films since 1984

festival.sundance.org

Toronto International Film Festival in Toronto, Canada, has been held since 1976

www.torontointernationalfilmfestival.ca

Venice Film Festival has taken place in Venice, Italy, since 1932

www.labiennale.org/en/cinema

International Film Festival Rotterdam has been held annually in January since 1972

www.iffr.com/en

Chicago International Film Festival held since 1964 every October.

www.chicagofilmfestival.com

famous actresses to wear their gowns to the Academy Awards. Actresses who are nominated for an award are especially sought after. In some newspapers, magazines, and broadcast media, these gowns and the looks of the actresses that wear them are subject to the same intense scrutiny and review as the movies themselves.

Oscars

Each winner receives a statuette whose official name is the Academy Award of Merit. Better known as an Oscar, these gold-plated statuettes are thirteen and a half inches tall and weigh eight and one half pounds. The figure is meant to represent a knight with a sword clasped in front of him, standing on a reel of film. No one knows exactly how the statuettes came to be known as Oscars. Some say that an early Academy librarian, Margaret Herrick—who later became president of the Academy—thought that the statuettes resembled her uncle Oscar. She started calling them by that name, and the Academy staff followed suit. This private name eventually spread throughout Hollywood. The Academy adopted Oscar as the nickname of its awards in 1939.

Red Carpet

When celebrities arrive at the Kodak Theater to attend the Academy Awards, they step out of their cars onto a red carpet. This carpet lines the path to the theater doors. Traditionally, red carpets have been spread in front of royalty or very high-ranking people. Certainly the famous actors, actresses, and directors who attend the awards ceremony may be viewed as Hollywood royalty. Reporters and photographers line both sides of the red carpet, hoping to get a photo or a short interview with one of the movie stars. Celebrities often linger awhile on the red carpet, enjoying the free publicity.

Sealed Envelopes

The Academy mails nomination ballots to its membership in late December. These are collected and tallied in January, so that the final ballots can be mailed in early February. The members return the ballots to the professional services firm Price Water house Coopers, which completes the official count. This procedure ensures that even Academy members don’t know the results of the voting until the winners are announced at the awards ceremony. PriceWaterhouseCoopers employees sworn to secrecy tally the votes and place the names of the winners in sealed envelopes. These sealed envelopes are delivered on the day of the event. The stars chosen to announce the award in each category list the names of the nominees, following a script whose last line reads, and the Oscar goes to.. Then they break the seal of the envelope and announce to the world the winner of the most coveted award in the world of film.

WEBSITES

The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences

www.oscars.org

CONTACTS

Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences

8949 Wilshire Blvd.

Beverly Hills, CA 90211

Phone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]

www.oscars.org

Advent

Type of Holiday: Religious (Christian)

Date of Observation: Sunday closest to November 30 through December 24 in the West; November 15 through December 24 in the East

Where Celebrated: United States, Great Britain, Europe, and by Christians throughout the world

Symbols and Customs: Advent Calendar, Advent Candle, Advent Letters, Advent Plays, Advent Wreath

Colors: Advent is associated with blue, the color of the Virgin Mary’s cloak. The liturgical color is purple, a reminder of the fact that Advent was originally a time for fasting and penance.

Related Holidays: Christmas, Christmas Eve

ORIGINS

Advent is a Christian holiday. The word Christian refers to a follower of Christ, a title derived from the Greek word meaning Messiah or Anointed One. The Christ of Christianity is Jesus of Nazareth, a man born between 7 and 4 b.c.e. in the region of Palestine. According to Christian teaching, Jesus was killed by Roman authorities using a form of execution called crucifixion (a term meaning he was nailed to a cross and hung from it until he died) in about the year 30 c.e. After his death, he rose back to life. His death and resurrection provide a way by which people can be reconciled with God. In remembrance of Jesus’ death and resurrection, the cross serves as a fundamental symbol in Christianity.

With nearly two billion believers in countries around the globe, Christianity is the largest of the world’s religions. There is no one central authority for all of Christianity. The pope (the bishop of Rome) is the authority for the Roman Catholic Church, but other sects look to other authorities. Orthodox communities look to patriarchs and emphasize doctrinal agreement and traditional practice. Protestant communities focus on individual conscience. The Roman Catholic and Protestant churches are often referred to as the Western Church, while the Orthodox churches may also be called the Eastern Church. All three main branches of Christianity acknowledge the authority of Christian scriptures, a compilation of writings assembled into a document called the Bible. Methods of biblical interpretation vary among the different Christian sects.

The name Advent comes from the Latin adventus, meaning coming or arrival. Just as LENT is a period during which Christians prepare for EASTER, Advent is a period of preparation for CHRISTMAS. It was originally observed by Eastern and some Western churches as preparation for the feast of EPIPHANY (January 6), which at one time celebrated both the birth of Jesus Christ and his baptism. When Rome fixed December 25 as the commemoration of Jesus’ birth in the fourth century, however, Advent underwent a shift not only in time but in mood as well. No longer a period of fasting and somber self-reflection, Advent became a time of joyous anticipation.

In 490 c.e. Bishop Perpetuus of Tours, France, established a period of penance and preparation for Christmas in his diocese. He advocated fasting on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays for a forty-day period preceding Christmas. This fast period began on the day after MARTINMAS, November 11, thereby acquiring the name St. Martin’s Lent or The Forty Days’ Fast of St. Martin. The observation of a period of penance in preparation for Christmas gradually spread throughout France and on to Spain and Germany. Later, the Advent fast was adoped in England as well.

Advent was observed in Rome beginning in the sixth century. Pope Gregory I (590-604 c.e.) developed much of the Roman Advent liturgy and shortened the period of observance from six to four weeks. The joyous, festive spirit with which Romans celebrated Advent clashed with the somber, penitential mood established in Gallic observances. For a number of centuries Advent celebrations throughout Europe varied in tone, length, and manner of observance. By the thirteenth century the observance of Advent in western Europe had stabilized. It combined the Roman tradition of a four-week observance, the Gallic custom of fasting, and a liturgy that mingled the themes of penance and joy. In recent centuries, the Roman Catholic church reduced and eventually eliminated fasting. In the West, Advent Sunday is the Sunday nearest the Feast of St. Andrew (November 30). The overall length of the Advent period may vary from twenty-two to twenty-eight days, but it always ends on CHRISTMAS EVE. The Orthodox (Eastern) Christian year begins on September 1, and Advent is observed beginning on November 15.

SYMBOLS AND CUSTOMS

Advent Calendar

The popular Advent calendar that parents give their children to help them count the days until Christmas originated in Germany, but quickly spread to other countries. It may consist of a Christmas House printed on cardboard with small cutout windows that can be opened by folding them back, revealing a miniature picture or symbol associated with the feast of Christmas. The calendar is hung on a wall or window at the beginning of December, and one of the windows is opened each day. The last door or window is opened on Christmas Eve, and it shows the Nativity scene. Aside from this reference to the religious aspect of the season, however, Advent calendars are primarily a means of keeping children’s minds occupied during the long wait for the arrival of Santa Claus.

Advent Candle

The Advent candle may be a single large candle located in a central place in the home or four separate candles set in a special holder. The candles are usually white and may be hand-dipped. One candle is lit on Advent Sunday and allowed to burn down a little way. On the second Sunday, both the first and the second candles are lit for a while—and so on, until all four candles are burning at different levels on the Sunday preceding Christmas Eve. Like the Advent calendar, these candles serve as a reminder that Christmas is coming soon.

At pre-Christmas church services in Germany, children hold a decorated orange in which a small candle has been inserted. Originated by the Moravian Brethren in eastern Germany, the candle is called the Christingle, which might have derived from either Christ-kindl, meaning Christ Child, or Christ-engel, referring to the angel who brings gifts to children.

Advent Letters

A custom popular in Europe, Canada, and South America, Advent letters are notes addressed to Baby Jesus that children leave on their window sills when they go to bed on December 5, the eve of St. Nicholas’ Day. The notes contain lists of Christmas presents the children hope to receive and are supposedly taken to heaven by angels or by St. Nicholas himself. In South America, children write their notes to Little Jesus between December 16 and 24, leaving them in front of the crèche for the angels to pick up.

This is very similar to the American custom of sending Christmas letters to Santa Claus at the North Pole. These letters are dropped in specially decorated red mail-boxes that are put out every year a few weeks before Christmas.

Advent Plays

During Advent in Germany and Austria, the Herbergsuchen was a popular custom. People reenacted the Holy Family’s fruitless search for shelter in Bethlehem on the night that Jesus was born. The performance usually ended with a happy ending tableau showing the Nativity scene.

A similar custom, LAS POSADAS, is popular in Central and South America, Mexico, and Hispanic communities in the U.S. Between December 16 and 24, several neighboring families gather in one house, where they prepare a shrine with a crib and traditional figures, but the manger itself is left empty. A procession moves through the house, pictures of Mary and Joseph are placed on the shrine, and a priest blesses everyone present. Sometimes a group of pilgrims will knock on the door and ask the owner of the house to let them in. This reenactment of Mary and Joseph’s search for shelter (posada in Spanish) ends with a big party for the adults and an opportunity for the children to break a piñata filled with candy and suspended from the ceiling.

Frauentragen, or woman carrying, is an old German Advent custom still practiced in some areas that closely resembles the Hispanic folk play LAS POSADAS. Children carry a picture or figurine representing the Virgin Mary to a neighborhood home. Once there they sing or enact a brief scene from the Nativity story, say a prayer, and place the picture or figurine near the family crucifix. The children return for the image the following evening and carry it to a new home. In this way, they act out Mary and Joseph’s search for lodging in Bethlehem. On Christmas Eve, the children carry Mary back to the church, where she takes her place in the Nativity scene.

Advent Wreath

The Advent wreath is made of yew, fir, or laurel and is suspended from the ceiling or placed on a table. Four candles stand upright at equal distances around the cir-cumference of the wreath, representing the four weeks of Advent. One candle is lit each Sunday during the Advent season. On the fourth Sunday, the family gathers in the evening to say prayers and sing Advent hymns, and all four candles glow.

Symbols for light played an important role in late November and early December, the season during which the pre-Christian festival of Yule was observed with the burning of torches and bonfires. When Christianity came along, many of these light and fire symbols were kept alive. By the sixteenth century, the custom of using candles as a religious symbol of Advent had been established in Germany and was spreading rapidly among Protestants and Catholics alike.

In some parts of Europe, it is traditional for someone named John or Joan to light the candles on the Advent wreath, because the Gospel of John refers to Christ as the Light of the World. Another possible reason for this custom is that John the Baptist was the first one to see the light of divinity shining around Jesus when he was baptized in the River Jordan.

The wreath itself is an ancient symbol whose eternal circle stands as a reminder of new beginnings at a time of apparent endings. While Advent falls near the end of the calendar year, it marks the beginning of the Christian year. Because the wreath is made of evergreens, it also serves as a symbol of eternal life in Christian terms and the life that goes on in nature despite the cold winter weather.

WEBSITES

Christian Resource Institute

www.crivoice.org/cyadvent.html

New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia

www.newadvent.org/cathen/01165a.htm

CONTACTS

Orthodox Church in America

P.O. Box 675

Syosset, NY 11791

Phone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]

oca.org

Akshaya Tritiya

(Akha Teej)

Type of Holiday: Religious (Hindu and Jain)

Date of Observation: April-May; third day of the waxing half of the Hindu month of Vaisakha

Where Celebrated: India

Symbols and Customs: Haldi Kumkum Ceremony, Parana, Pitru Tarpan, Varshi Tap

ORIGINS

Akshaya Tritiya is celebrated on the third day of the waxing moon in the month of Vaisakha, the second and one of the most sacred months of the Hindu calendar. Akshaya Tritiya marks the first day in the month-long observance of fasts, feasts, and prayers, and is also believed to mark the first day of the Krita Yuga (the first cosmic time cycle, according to Hinduism), an era when the world was free from misery and evil, and people lived a life of bliss and contentment.

The word Hindu is derived from the Sanskrit term Sindhu (or Indus), which meant river. It referred to people living in the Indus valley in the Indian subcontinent. Many scholars regard Hinduism as the oldest living religion. Hinduism has no founder, one universal reality (or god) known as Brahman, many gods and goddesses (sometimes referred to as devtas), and several scriptures. Hinduism also has no priesthood or hierarchical structure similar to that seen in some other religions, such as Christianity. Hindus acknowledge the authority of a wide variety of writings, but there is no single, uniform canon. The oldest of the Hindu writings are the Vedas. The word veda comes from the Sanskrit word for knowledge. The Vedas, which were compiled from ancient oral traditions, contain hymns, instructions, explanations, chants for sacrifices, magical formulas, and philosophy. Another set of sacred books include the Great Epics, which illustrate Hindu faith in practice. The Epics include the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Bhagavad Gita.

The Hindu pantheon includes approximately thirty-three million gods. Some of these are held in higher esteem than others. Over all the gods, Hindus believe in one absolute high god or universal concept. This is Brahman. Although he is above all the gods, he is not worshipped in popular ceremonies because he is detached from the day-to-day affairs of the people. Brahman is impersonal. Lesser gods and goddesses (devtas) serve him. Because these are more intimately involved in the affairs of people, they are venerated as gods. The most honored god in Hinduism varies among the different Hindu sects. Three of the most popular are Vishnu, Shiva, and Sakti. Hindus may consider these three as different gods or as different expressions of god. Although Hindu adherents practice their faith differently and venerate different deities, they share a similar view of reality and look back on a common history.

Akshaya Tritiya literally translates as the never diminishable and has been traditionally observed as a propitious time among Hindus to engage in yagnas (ritual offerings to consecrated fire amid sacred chanting); yajaanam (enabling others to perform auspicious activities); dhanam (charity); and pratigraham (accumulation of wealth). Rituals honoring the dead are also widely practiced on this day, and believers earn religious merit by performing these deeds.

There are numerous legends relating to the origin of the festival. The first centers on the return of the goddess Gauri, an important deity of the Hindu pantheon, to her husband’s home after a month-long sojourn at her parental home. The beginning of the month is observed in many parts of the country as Chaitra Gauri Vrat (fast in honor of goddess Gauri in the Hindu month of Chaitra), when the goddess is welcomed like a daughter in every household, seated on a decorated swing, and worshipped with pujas (prayer rituals) throughout the month. Akshaya Tritiya marks the day when the goddess leaves her parental home, and, like any daughter in a traditional Indian home, is sent off with feasts and sweets. Married women visit each other’s homes and are offered good-luck items like turmeric, betel leaf, and vermillion.

The second is about Sudhama, an impoverished Brahman (upper caste Hindu) and childhood friend of Lord Krishna, who, on the insistence of his wife, reluctantly visits Lord Krishna to seek his help and to present him with the humble morsel of poha (beaten rice) he brought with him. The lord, who lived in opulence, offers a royal welcome to his poor friend, snatches up the bundle of beaten rice, and proceeds to feast on it. Sudhama demonstrates the true virtues of a devotee as ordained in the scriptures and returns home without seeking any kind of material wealth, only to find that his dilapidated hut has vanished, and in its place stands a magnificent palace fit for the king of the heavens. It is believed that Sudhama received Lord Krishna’s boon of untold wealth and prosperity on the day of Akshaya Tritiya.

The third legend relates the story of a poor bania, or trader, who is regarded third in the Hindu caste system. It is said that on the day of Akshaya Tritiya, the man performed the rite of making offerings to a Brahman to honor his late father, and the outcome of this good deed was that he was born a wealthy Kshatriya (a class ranked second in the Hindu caste system) in his next life. The man continued to feed Brahmans and perform yagnas, and his wealth continued to grow. He is believed to have led a blissful life until he attained salvation.

Given the cultural diversity of India, celebrations and traditions related to the festival vary greatly across the country, from the pitru tarpan, a highly symbolic ritual of honoring the departed, to the infamous child marriages in one of the northwestern states of the country. For some communities, Akshaya Tritiya marks the beginning of the new financial year, and a new audit book is opened on this day. In some of the villages of northeast India, farmers sow seeds on Akshaya Tritiya, while in others mass weddings are celebrated on this day. People visit temples dedicated to Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, and also perform special pujas to appease Kubera, the god-king of wealth. In recent years, the acquisition of material wealth on this day has become an increasingly important festival tradition and has, in fact, overshadowed all other traditions to such an extent that buying gold jewelry or real estate, or starting a new business, has become synonymous with the festival. Gold retailers and banks cash in on this tradition through robust campaigns and stock gold coins and other items of precious metals embossed with images of gods and goddesses.

Akshaya Tritiya is also celebrated by the Jains in India. An ancient Indian religion, Jainism accords great importance to a pantheon of twenty-four spiritual guides called the Tirithankaras. Over the centuries, some degree of integration with the predominant Hindu society in the country has led to many common aspects in the social and cultural ethos of Jains and Hindus. The observance of Akshaya Tritiya, or the Akha Teej, as the Jains refer to it, is a case in point. Like the Hindus, the Jains regard the day as extremely holy, tracing its origin to Lord Rishabhadeva, the first of the twenty-four spiritual guides in Jainism. It is said that Rishabhadeva grew weary of worldly attachments and decided to relinquish his kingdom and undertake a six-month fast and meditation, at the end of which he set out to accept food offerings from people. Monks at the time had to follow a strict code of behavior, accepting only the food offered by strangers. The people of Rishabhadeva’s kingdom offered their beloved king wealth of all kinds, including precious gems, elephants, horses, and even their daughters as consort for the king, but none offered him even a morsel of food. Left with no choice, Rishabadeva went on to fast for a year. His grandson, King Shreyansa, realized Rishabhadeva’s need and offered him sugarcane juice. To this day, Jains across the country commemorate their first spiritual guru by breaking their fast with sugarcane juice.

SYMBOLS AND CUSTOMS

Haldi Kumkum Ceremony (turmeric and vermillion ceremony)

In some parts of the country, particularly the western state of Maharashtra, the women observe this ceremony during the festival of Akshaya Tritiya. Offerings of desserts, fruit, and flowers are made to the decorated image of goddess Gowri, and married women visit each other’s homes and are offered turmeric and vermillion, two important symbols of marital bliss. The women offer prayers to the goddess and receive gifts of bangles and sweets from the hostess, in addition to coconut, flowers, betel leaf, and areca nut—items regarded as auspicious in Hindu symbolism.

Parana (completion of austerity)

The year-long fast known as Varshi Tap is broken on Akshaya Tritiya by drinking sugarcane juice. Many devout Jains visit the pilgrimage centers of Palitana (in the western state of Gujarat), as well as the Jain Shwethambar Temple at Hastinapura, in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, to break their fast.

Pitru Tarpan (libation to ancestors)

Ancestral appeasement forms an essential part of Akshaya Tritiya traditions in many communities across India. Libations of water and sesame seeds are offered as part of the filial duties prescribed by Hindu scriptures. Some people follow the libation rite with Brahman-bhojan (offering of a meal to a Brahman), which is believed to bring satisfaction to both ancestors and deities, who in return bestow the descendant with long life, numerous offspring, and prosperity. Pitru Tarpan is often performed on the banks of a river, but many Indians also observe it at home.

Varshi Tap (year-long austerity)

Fasting as a means of asserting self-control is an essential component of Jainism and Jain festivals. The Varshi Tap, which is a fast observed for a year starting from the eighth day of the waning phase of the moon in the Hindu month of Chaitra, involves fasting on alternate days. The day after the fast is observed as Biyasan, when two meals are consumed between sunrise and sunset.

CONTACTS

India Embassy

2107 Massachusetts Ave. N.W.

Washington, DC 20008

Phone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]

www.indianembassy.org

Ministry of Tourism, Government of India

1270 Avenue of the Americas

Ste. 303

New York, NY 10020

Phone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]

tourism.gov.in

Akwambo

(Akwanbo, Path-Clearing Festival)

Type of Holiday: Folkloric

Date of Observation: Varies

Where Celebrated: Central Region, Ghana

Symbols and Customs: Durbar, Offerings, Path Clearing

ORIGINS

Akwambo is observed annually, mainly in the Agona and Gomoa Districts in the Central Region of Ghana. The festival commemorates the journey and arrival of the founding settlers of the four towns of Gyinankoma, Ekrawfo, Atakwaa, and Otabenadze. Celebrations are held at various times of the year, usually lasting for several days, and can include different activities according to local custom. However, most Akwambo festivals share certain common customs such as the ritual path clearing, a public gathering known as a durbar, and family or community reunions. There may also be music and dance performances, soccer games, and parades. In some areas, young people hold an all-night party.

SYMBOLS AND CUSTOMS

Durbar

A durbar is usually held near the end of the Akwambo festival. Community leaders and chiefs are carried on covered litters in a procession of drummers, dancers, singers, musicians, and soldiers. A public reception follows, during which speeches are made by politicians and other dignitaries. Also at this time community members may bring forward any concerns or problems needing the leaders’ attention.

Offerings

During Akwambo, communal offerings are made to honor the town’s ancestors. It is believed that the ancestral spirits continue to interact with the living by providing protection, good fortune, and blessings in the form of rain and successful harvests. Offerings normally take the form of libations poured on the ground or food items scattered on the water.

Path Clearing

Perhaps the most important part of Akwambo is the ritual path clearing that is done in honor of the first settlers who established the town. Every member of the community is expected to participate in clearing the paths and roads leading to the town, as well as those that provide access to streams, rivers, farms, shrines, and communal spaces. Unpaved footpaths are weeded and maintained, while paved roads are ritually swept with branches, brooms, and fans made of leaves.

WEBSITES

Ghana Embassy in the United States

www.ghana-embassy.org

Ghana Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment

www.ghanadistricts.com

Ghana Ministry of Tourism and Diasporan Relations

www.touringghana.com

Ghana National Commission on Culture

www.ghanaculture.gov.gh

Ghana Tourism Authority

www.ghana.travel

CONTACTS

Ghana Embassy

3512 International Dr. N.W.

Washington, DC 20008

Phone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]

www.ghanaembassy.org

Al-Hijra

(Islamic New Year)

Type of Holiday: Religious (Muslim)

Date of Observation: First day of the first Islamic month of Muharram

Where Celebrated: Throughout the Muslim world

Symbols and Customs: Majlis

Related Holidays: Ashura

ORIGINS

Al-Hijra marks the beginning of a new Islamic calendar year and is also the first day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic lunar calendar. According to some estimates, there are more than one billion Muslims worldwide, with populations found in the Middle East, North and sub-Saharan Africa, Turkey, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. In Europe and the United States, Islam is the second largest religious group, with some seven million adherents in the United States. During the early years of Islam, the faith spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula into regions that are today occupied by Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq, and Jordan. Contrary to popular opinion, however, Muslims are not just Arabs. Muslims—followers of Islam—are found in many different ethnic groups all over the globe. In fact, Arabs make up less than twenty percent of Muslims.

The word Islam is an Arabic word that means surrender to God. Its other meanings include peace, safety, and health. The central focus of Islam is a personal commitment and surrender to Allah, the Arabic word for God. In Islam, the concept of Allah is universal and eternal. Allah is the same in every religion and throughout the history of humankind. A person who follows Islam is called a Muslim, which means one who surrenders or submits to Allah’s will. But Islam is not just a religion of belief; it is a religion of action. Five specific deeds are required of followers; these are called The Five Pillars of Islam. They are 1) Shahadah—confession of faith; 2) Salat— prayer/worship; 3) Zakat—charity; 4) Sawm—fasting; and 5) Hajj—pilgrimage.

The message of Islam was brought by Muhammad (570-632 c.e.), who is considered a prophet of Allah. The holy book of Islam is the Qur’an (also sometimes spelled Koran or Alcoran). According to Islamic belief, the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad by Allah over a period of twenty-three years. Authorship of the Qur’an is attributed to Allah, and not to Muhammad; Muhammad merely received it. Muslims believe that because it originated with Allah, the Qur’an is infallible.

There are two main sects within Islam: Sunni and Shi’ite. Sunni Muslims are the majority (estimated at about eighty percent). They recognize the authority of the first four Caliphs, including Ali, and they believe that the Sunna (the example of the Prophet Muhammad) is interpreted through the consensus of the community. Shi’ite Muslims also look to special teachers, called imams. The imams are the direct descendants of Muhammad through Fatimah and Ali. These individuals are believed to be inspired and to possess secret knowledge. Shi’ites, however, do not recognize the same line of Islamic leaders acknowledged by the Sunnis. Shi’ites hold to a doctrine that accepts only leaders who are descended from Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and her husband Ali. Many Shi’ite subsects believe that true imams are errorless and sinless. They receive instruction from these leaders rather than relying on the consensus of the community.

Al-Hijra, which literally means an emigration, escape, or flight, in Arabic, dates back to 622 c.e. when Mohammad emigrated from Mecca to Medina. The Quraysh tribe, to which Mohammad belonged, was powerful during the time and had absolute control over Mecca, a pagan shrine that attracted scores of pilgrims and rich revenues. The tribe rejected Mohammad’s status as prophet as well as the doctrine of monotheism in Islam and tried to silence him and his followers. Some of the early Muslims fled Mecca in fear of persecution, and Mohammad himself, when warned of a plot to assassinate him, secretly escaped to Yathrib, a city north of Mecca. Yathrib was renamed Medina, and soon more and more Muslims emigrated from Mecca to Medina. The city became the power base of early Islam, thus laying the foundation for the emergence of the first Muslim city-state, which, it is believed, marked a defining point in the history of Islam and the history of the world.

Following the death of Mohammad in 632, one of his close companions and the second caliph of the Islamic empire Umar ibn al Khattab decided in 639 to do away with the conflicting dating systems prevalent during the time by introducing a new system of Islamic chronology based on lunar cycles. The Hijra was taken as the reference point of the new Islamic calendar, and thus holds great significance for Muslims. While some Muslims determine the Hijra based on local sightings of the moon, a majority of them, including the Saudis, use astronomical calculations to determine their new year. In general, Muslims across the world usher in the New Year quietly and without the loud celebrations typical of New Year celebrations of other cultures. The sighting of the new moon is recorded in the mosques and special prayers and readings of the Qur’an are held. The story of the prophets flight to Medina is recounted in mosques and dargahs (Sufi shrines) and also aired over radio and television.

The tenth day after Al-Hijra is ASHURA, an important festival for Muslims, many of whom follow a tradition of fasting beginning at the turn of the New Year. For Shiites, Al-Hijra is the first day of a ten-day period of mourning that culminates in the day of Ashura, a commemoration of the martyrdom of the prophet’s grandson; the Sunnis, on the other hand, observe the tenth day after Al-Hijra as a day of atonement. They believe that Prophet Mohammad upon arrival in Medina saw the Jews fast on this day to commemorate the day when their god saved the Israelites from their enemy. The Sunnis believe that Mohammad followed the tradition of fast on this day and ordained that Muslims do the same.

Shia Muslims, in particular, avoid any kind of celebrations for a ten-day period starting from Al-Hijra. Although fasting is not obligatory, many Muslims observe a fast from Hijra to the tenth day of the holy month of Muharram. In recent years, the tradition of exchanging New Year card and gifts, typical of New Year celebrations associated with the Gregorian and other calendars, have caught on in Muslim communities in many parts of the world. While the Islamic New year is generally a low-key and solemn occasion that dwells more on the reflection of the origins of the faith, as well as the mortality of humans, Hijra observance in some parts of the world, particularly the Far East, is more upbeat with music programs and cultural events marking the day.

SYMBOLS AND CUSTOMS

Majlis

Although there is no prescribed religious ritual associated with the Islamic New Year, Majlis, which is Arabic for a sitting place, salon, or specific gathering of people, is observed from Al-Hijra through the tenth day of the holy month of Muharram. Muslims gather at mosques, private residences, or public places to honor the sacrifice of the Prophet’s grandson Husayn ibn Ali and his family, who were killed by one of the caliphs who had risen to power after the death of the Prophet. The tragedy marks the battle of Karbala (in present-day Iraq) as an important event, particularly in Shia Islam, and is an essential element of Muharram observances across the Muslim world. Religious leaders or Islamic scholars recount the battle and Husayn’s supreme sacrifice, his courage in the face of oppression, and his steadfast devotion to Allah and the cause of Islam through a tradition of ritualized narrations and chants. Men and women hold separate Majlis, and if both are invited, a curtain separates them.

Alasitas Fair

Type of Holiday: Folkloric

Date of Observation: January 24

Where Celebrated: Bolivia

Symbols and Customs: Blessing Ceremony, Ekeko, Miniature Objects

ORIGINS

The Alasitas Fair is a festival of good luck. It is observed throughout Bolivia, but the largest celebration takes place in Bolivia’s capital city, La Paz. The festival traces it roots back to the time before the Spanish conquered Latin America. In those days, a native American ethnic group called the Aymara lived in what is now Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. They honored a number of gods, including a god of abundance called ekeko. The Aymara were conquered by another group of Indian people, called the Incas, who were in turn conquered by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. The Aymara people survived all these battles, however, and so did elements of their culture and religion. During the Alasitas Fair, people make little offerings to Ekeko, hoping he in turn will bless them with money and material possessions.

The festival as we know it today got its start in the eighteenth century. At this time, the country was already under Spanish rule. A joint Spanish and Aymara festival that resembled the Alasitas Fair had already been established in La Paz. The local Catholic bishop, however, forbade the holiday, fearing the celebrations were taking on rowdy, sexual overtones. Although the Spanish had lived in Bolivia for two centuries, many native people still resented the foreign conquerors. In 1781, a group of Indians rebelled against the Spanish and set siege to the capital city of La Paz. During this time, the Spanish people living in La Paz flocked to church to pray to the Virgin Mary in the presence of a beautiful statue of her that was given to the city by the Spanish king Felipe II. Although the siege lasted for months, the Spanish eventually put down the rebellion. They credited the divine intercession of the Virgin of La Paz with ensuring their victory. In gratitude, they reinstituted the joint Spanish Aymara holiday, declaring it to be a feast day in honor of the Virgin Mary and moving it from October to January 24. Although special Roman Catholic religious observances were scheduled on this day, the native people preferred to continue their devotion to Ekeko. Over time, the Catholic observances diminished, and the activities surrounding Ekeko grew in importance. This event became known as the Alasitas Fair.

The name Alasitas comes from an Aymara word that may be translated as buy me or come and buy. The name refers to the large markets that provide Bolivians with miniature objects with which to adorn their Ekeko statuettes. In addition to the markets, the fair also features performances of Bolivian music and folk dancing.

SYMBOLS AND CUSTOMS

Blessing Ceremony

Many Bolivians believe that ekeko is more likely to respond to their offerings