Empathy, Childhood Trauma and Trauma History as a Moderator

By Gwendolyn Marshall MSW MLS DSW-LSW

A small sample study involving empathy, domestic violence in family units, and regarding women living in substitute housing/domestic violence shelters with their minor children. The study uses assessment tools to determine the adult strengths in empathy, attachment, as well as how the adult perceives their level of practice versus their level of knowledge of parenting skills with the minor child. The small study used twenty participants living in four different facilities in northwestern Illinois. In addition, the study was a completion of a university doctoral dissertation that was presented and defended at Aurora University in Aurora, Illinois in 2019.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Covenant Books, Inc.
• Release date: Oct 14, 2022
• ISBN: 9781685261733

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Empathy, Childhood Trauma and Trauma History as a Moderator

Gwendolyn Marshall MSW, MLS, DSW-LSW

ISBN 978-1-68526-172-6 (Paperback)

ISBN 978-1-68526-173-3 (Digital)

Copyright © 2022 Gwendolyn Marshall MSW, MLS, DSW–LSW

All rights reserved

First Edition

Tables in Appendix H were taken directly from the articles (Salkin & Ohan).

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods without the prior written permission of the publisher. For permission requests, solicit the publisher via the address below.

Covenant Books

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Murrells Inlet, SC 29576

www.covenantbooks.com

Table of Contents

Dedication

Acknowledgments

Preface

Abstract

Background and Rationale

Methods

Results

Discussion

Chapter One

Introduction

Background and Problem

Purpose

Research Questions

Brief Description of the Study

Relevance to Social Work

Chapter Two

Literature Review

Prevalence in the General Population

Trauma

Childhood Behavior, and Parent Knowledge of Trauma

Relationship to the theory of a good enough mother

Reporting the impact of some traumas

Child Discipline with Caretaker Versus Attachment with the Child: The Consequences

Trauma: Definition

Trauma: Occurrence

Exposure to domestic violence (DV)

Theory and hypothesis

Human development

Conceiving of the Self for the Child

Attachment

Discussion of the Theory of Child Trauma and Attachment

Attachment Theory: Bowlby & Ainsworth

Need for Research on the Topic of Childhood Trauma

Identify and Describe Current Trends in This Study in Research

Social Work Theory in Practice

Studies Defining Trauma Experiences for Children

Studies Defining Intervention Treatment for Childhood Trauma

Assessing Childhood Trauma

Summary

Chapter Three

Methodology

Definitions of variables in the study

Operational definitions

Qualitative questions

Hypothesis

*Thematic Analysis.

Research Question

Purpose of study

Qualitative questions

Research study design

Data collection procedures

Instrumentation

Limitations

Sample

Agency 1

Agency 2

Agency 3

Agency 4

Data analysis plan

Bias

Racial status of caretakers

Level of Significance

Summary

Chapter IV

Results

Introduction to Prominent Themes in the Clinical Interview

Prominent themes in the clinical interview (See Appendix)

Primary Trauma (Overt Trauma)

All Caretakers Wish for Child Safety (Child Safety Issues)

DV

DV/Abusive Relationship with Father

DV in Home of Origin

Leave When Child Hurt/Impact On Child

Child's Conflicted Loyalty: Impact On Child-Father Relationship

Secondary Trauma: Trauma Impacted by Primary Trauma

Housing

Homelessness

Multiple Relocations of Residence for the Family

DCFS/POS Agency Involvement/Family Court/ Child Custody

Financial/Material Loss

Risk Factors: Impact of Trauma

Mental Illness of Partner (Male) in Relationship

Impact of Risk Factors

Child Mixed Loyalties

Low Self-Esteem of the Caretaker (Female)

Depression of Adults in the Home: Female Caretaker & Father

Feelings of Being Overwhelmed

Lack of Parent Skills: Caretaker Seemed Confused About Her Role As a Parent

Sincere Concern for Child Adjustment

Observations by the Clinical Interviewer: Caretaker Interviews

Enmeshment in Familial Relationships

Chapter V

Discussion

I. Research Questions

II. Does the Data Analysis Support Theorists Used in the Study?

A. Daniel E. Stern (1985)

B. Bowlby & Ainsworth (1950)

III. Implications for the social work profession

A. Policy

B. Programs and Practice

C. Social Education

IV. Recommendations for future research

V. What are the implications for Parent Skills Training to Support Fractured families?

VI. Additional Remarks

Citations

Chart of References

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

Appendix E

Fellowship Housing for Women facility consent

Safe Passages signed facility consent

Shelter Care signed facility consent

Appendix F

Appendix G

ACE-BRFSS

NSCS

PCRI Publication Copyright Form

Appendix H

Appendix I

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dedication

To Taylor, Harmonie, and Isabella. You have been my greatest motivation to strive to do more; never giving up until the job is done.

Acknowledgments

What is essential in our particular field is every single worker's involvement with the total growth and development of the child, even though his own efforts may represent one single contribution to its future fate.

—Anna Freud, 1969

I have so many people to thank for my success. I thank all of those individuals and my professors, instructors, leaders, and administrators who encouraged me to do more than I thought it was possible for me to do and to achieve. I will begin with my mother. A woman of many travels, she kept the most important secret close to her heart. My mom always thought to arrange for me to be in an environment where I was able to learn, to be involved in school, and to have access to the library, to encourage my insatiable interest in learning about the world.

I would like to thank Minnie Boone, Mary Dishmund, and Sara Fuller. These family members made it possible for me to be included in the wonders of the educational system. They were my first exposure to community work, reaching back and helping those who are less fortunate than your circumstances.

In addition, I would like to thank Dr. Novar for encouraging my clinical skills in the field of psychology. She always encouraged listening to the client; they will always tell you everything you need to know to help them.

All of my professors at Aurora University in Aurora, Illinois, have been the best! They have been supportive, patient, encouraging, and willing to take time to support the student through their educational journey. My very best gratitude goes to Dr. Brenda Barnwell, Dr. Mark Stone, Dr. Christina Bruhn, Dr. Faith Wilson, and Dr. William Ressl. They have facilitated my doctoral dissertation process that allowed me to complete my work in a timely manner.

I will be forever grateful for my family. They have waited patiently for my success so that we could have more time for fun things! I thank God for his many blessings and for allowing all these individuals to occupy my space in the world!

Preface

In 1917, Mary Richmond authored the book "Social Diagnosis." Her book was the guideline for case managers and Friendly Visitors who interacted with the child in the environment of the home. The book intended to prevent the removal of the child from the home as the result of abuse or neglect, in addition to assisting the adult caretaker to improve their station in life. Much later in 1985 Daniel N. Stern, developed the theory of the Inter-subjective Infant. The theory developed by D. Stern, explains the developmental domains of the child, between the ages of zero to five, as the child learns to interact with the adult caretaker and the important adults in their environment. Stern's theory espouses the importance of the "good enough mother during the growth and development of the child. There are those other (British theorists) who have, also, taken a position with the good enough mother" theory: (Mahler, Winnecott, 1953 Bowlby, 1950, Fairburn, 1954, Guntrip, 1971, Klein,1952), in addition to the American Theorist Harry Stack Sullivan, 1953. The current study will examine the use of the theory that was developed by the American theorist Daniel N. Sten.

An examination of Child Welfare agencies, in America, indicates that these agencies have, historically, taken the responsibility for establishing the guidelines and the standard recommendations for the family, and any adult caretaker responsible for caring for the child in the home environment, as well as in substitute care arrangements. These agencies have established financial disbursements that have been delegated and regulated by our legislative organizations, both state and federal. In addition, there have been other important agencies that have in the past regulated the defining boundaries and regulatory policy, procedure, and standards for children in proper adult care and supervision such as the Catholic Church. In the era of the child labor laws children were removed from the care of their caretakers as the result of alleged abuse and neglect, and they were placed in foster homes, orphanages, and Alms Houses that were supervised by the Catholic Church (Day, 2000).

In Illinois Child Welfare has, also, been regulated by and it has come under the auspicious of the Illinois Child Care Act of 1969. This act defines the child in the care of an adult caretaker as categorized in one of three separate groups: ages zero to five are in the high risk group for harm, ages six to 10 are in the intermediate risk group of harm, and ages 11–18 are in the low risk group for harm. Child welfare services has faced constant challenges in their work, since most agencies in the State of Illinois come under the auspicious of the State legislature (Downs et al., 1996). The profession is constantly challenged to support their methods, their proposals, and their success' in the community. Government, through regulation, funding, and the legal system, defines much of the framework within which these services are offered (Downs et al., 1996, p. 23). This places the importance on conducting research such as in the current study. The current study will explore the processes that carry the implications for this type of quality assurance regarding best practice in the implementation of services with client populations.

Best practice as it has been approached in previous studies involving childhood trauma seems to have been reflective in a way that engages the entire family. Previously there has been significant importance in engaging the adult caretaker, developing a rapport as the worker interviews the individual, keeping perspective of the pertinent facts and the importance of maintaining child safety (Downs, 1996). If and when it was possible the child was made available at some point to assess the degree and the level of trauma alleged to have impacted the child (home, schools, hospitals). In addition, other significant family members, and neighbors, were also contacted for support and information regarding the child trauma experienced in the family.

A review of the literature review tends to show a pattern of the use of these clinical skills across the board. Theorists such as Carl Rogers (1965) made use of reflective thoughts while engaging the client, repetition and clarification of the clients' words, emotions, and affect, in addition to exhibiting the use of empathic emotions for the client. In addition Carl Whitaker (1988), and Virginia Satir (1983), often made good use of these reflective actions to enlist the difficult client and to engage them in the interview process.

Downs, et al., (1996), indicated that the contrast to an institutional or developmental conception of social welfare holds that a number of normal and well prepared individuals in the face of involvement with social service agencies, families in today's complex, technological society, exhibit common human needs and require support at various times in their lives. Therefore services for children and families, in addition to being protective and therapeutic, should also be preventive and supportive, and easily available without stigma attached to being a client involved in welfare services.

The primary focus of social workers and case managers requires boundaries that establish the proper set of interventions for these experiences and challenges. Work with children experiencing traumatic events during important developmental milestones, and work with children and their caretakers for lengthy amounts of time helps the social worker or case manager to realize the importance of facilitating the child's resolution of experiences of trauma in the family. Downs (1996), stated that our society's expectations for child welfare have increased in time. No longer is it enough just to rescue children from unsuitable home situations, now the expectation is for the child welfare system to provide a relatively high level of care and to plan for the children's future as well (Downs et al., 1996, p. 37).

The Illinois Child Welfare Act was released in 1969 and in 1988 the Family support Act became a significant piece of welfare reform. The Act incorporated and developed the principle of parental responsibility for the support of children by strengthening the child support enforcement provisions and emphasizing work and employment training for parents under the WIN Program (women, infants, nutrition) (Downs et al., 1996, p. 33). This began the establishment of child welfare services in the communities. Each of these service categories has a distinct purpose and role in the agency's service system, and all share an overarching goal: to assure an adequate environment in which children can grow, develop and thrive (Downs et al., 1996, p. 24).

My personal career in State Agency Child Welfare Services has its advantages. In addition, a career in the State of Indiana working in Public Aid and Child Welfare Services has it allowances in the way