Small Aircraft Operations Manual

By Stephen M Lind JD ATP

This book is a compilation of a half–century of flying experience in general aviation machines (sixteen thousand hours) and provides specific techniques and tips to enhance your knowledge of aviation and to improve your abilities and confidence as a pilot or student (and person). Coupling that flight background with decades of hands–on aircraft accident investigation involvement provides a completely fresh insight into being a pilot. The goal of this manual is to save lives! Small Aircraft Operations Manual is all about aviating airplanes. The hows and whys of flying such craft are explained in abundant detail (66 pages before engine start and 106 to even get airborne), along with the potentially dire consequences if the pertinent safety lessons therein are ignored. Many true stories and incidents (some humorous) are used to illustrate important points. The aviation enthusiast will also enjoy the flying history and lore woven into this simple and easy–to–read text. If you are flying general aviation aircraft or want to learn, then read and heed. This was written for you and your passengers, family, and friends.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Page Publishing, Inc.
• Release date: May 6, 2019
• ISBN: 9781684562350

Book preview

Mission Preparation

What to Wear and Bring

The attire best suited for flying is composed of natural-type fibers. You want to wear cottons or wools and avoid any kind of synthetics or acrylics, which could be real bad in a heat situation. Don’t wear a bright-colored shirt, if you can help it, to decrease glare/reflections off the instrument panel; same for your front-seat passenger. The ideal outfit would be a flight suit, a real one made out of Nomex, or cotton, at the very least. Definitely do not get a nylon or double-knit type of flight suit. Most flight suits have numerous pockets that can store various gadgets.

I highly recommend a belt tool or a Leatherman type of tool, a signal mirror in one of the pockets (as it is the most powerful signaling device during the sunlit time), a handkerchief, a small chart plotter, and a small E6B whiz wheel. Always carry a book of matches and a lighter to start a fire. Have some emergency Mordida (bribe) money (a few hundred dollars) secretly stowed in one of the pockets, along with some other spending cash. Always carry a dime, penny, nickel, and quarter, so you have four different-size screwdrivers. They could also be used for a pay phone, if one can be found.

If the craft has a V-belt-driven alternator, then have an extra V-belt stowed on board. Keep this belt in a sealed plastic bag so it does not dry out and oxidize and crack. Have a handheld luggage scale so cargo items can be accurately measured for weight and balance calculations. Carry some basic tools in a small bag along with a first aid kit and some basic survival gear. In Alaska, this also means bringing a weapon of at least a .30-caliber size. I carried an M1 Carbine with the Airborne folding stock and two thirty-round magazines jungle-clipped together. Why waltz when you can rock and roll?

One of the best devices to have in your headset bag, if it’s small enough, or possibly even in the flight suit, is some type of tracking beacon or emergency position-indicating radio beacon (EPIRB). Those are expensive. However, in the event of an emergency, it would be very worthwhile to have one. The new EPIRBs and devices with GPS enhancement allow the search-and-rescue team to just drive to your location as it’s posted that accurately.

Many times, flying a search mission is not required because of these new, very accurate beacons. Many of these devices are registered with NOAA, the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. They know what plane it is in, the capacity of the aircraft, who operates it, etc. This EPIRB should be worn securely on your belt. There are loops and a safety lanyard provided for that purpose. The lanyard should also be secured, separately, as a backup retention system.

This beacon and a pouch tool can be worn on your belt. The type of belt I suggest is a GI-style web belt (one-inch width) with an adjustable roller pin buckle, or any buckle that can be adjusted for any belt diameter. It can now double as a carrying strap, a sling, or worst case, a tourniquet. When you are actually flying over water, wear your PFD (personal flotation device) and have the EPIRB secured to your belt. Here’s why you secure the beacon to your belt.

A student pilot made a hard forced landing and had stored his EPIRB on top of the antiglare shield. The sudden stop broke the windshield, and the beacon shot forward out of the plane and landed thirty feet ahead in a poison ivy patch (of course). The injured pilot had to crawl to it to activate it. The aircraft’s ELT probably triggered, but many of those do not have the enhanced GPS reporting option.

If a device has a telescoping antenna, then always retract it by pulling it down from the bottom section. Don’t put your palm on the top and push down, as the aerial will eventually fold over and break.

There’s nothing like a (white) silk flying scarf in the wintertime. You can wear it inside the airplane, and it warms the back of your neck and a little bit on the top of your shoulders. In a small aircraft, that scarf will help, as the rear compartment has little or no heat and is very cold on your head and neck. I learned to fly in Wisconsin, and if the sun is not streaming in the cockpit, causing a greenhouse effect, it is cold enough to see your breath. You know it’s cold when you check the heater control knob regularly to confirm it is all the way out and on.

Silk is less abrasive on your neck for turning around or for swiveling your head as you constantly scan for traffic. You can also use a silk scarf to clean your sunglasses and wipe your screens and instrument glass off. It, too, can also be called to serve as a signaling device (especially if surrendering), a sling, a crude filter—you get the point. As we learned in the Rangers, in survival or demolitions work, your imagination is your only limit.

Always bring a hat with a bill, a baseball-type cap. If your hat has a button or top ornament on it, remove that from the top of the hat. If a downdraft was encountered of sufficient force, and even if your seat belt was tight, you could strike the ceiling and that button on the hat could hurt the top of your head. Normally, if you wear headsets, even when you hit the headliner in the airplane, the top of the headset protects you to some extent.

The bills on caps today are curved, which has made the bill absolutely worthless for its intended function, which is to block the sun from getting in your eyes. Therefore, you have to grasp the bill and fold the curve out, make it so the bill goes straight across instead of curved or crescent-shaped. On the last half-inch of each edge, fold the edges down forty-five degrees or almost ninety degrees to block the sunlight from coming in the sides. You can now wear the hat low enough, which is just above the eyebrows. In a low-sun situation, such as morning or evening, especially if the runway is lined up with the rising or setting sun, the hat will actually keep the sun out of your eyes.

Having a sun visor down may work as you descend or roll on the takeoff, but as soon as you raise the nose to flare or rotate, the sun visor goes up with the airplane, rendering it useless, and the sun now blinds you at this very critical moment. Unless you have the hat pulled down so low you can just see under the bill and over the antiglare shield, you won’t be able to see through the windshield.

I was in a T-303 Crusader taking off from Freeport, Bahamas, at dawn when that very phenomenon occurred. The sun blinded the lawyer-pilot flying as the nose rotated up, which allowed the sunlight under the visor bottom. He actually let go of the yoke with his left hand to shield his eyes, and the nose pitched down. I was in the right seat and quickly pitched the nose back up. He did not even know he almost crashed.

The only reason I could still see was, my properly adjusted hat bill blocked the blinding light. That would be an example of an accident happening because of sun glare, and whether the investigators could have ever figured out what actually transpired, in that he did not have a hat on or the hat wasn’t folded properly, is very doubtful. Have and use a flying hat and leave it in the aircraft so it’s always available.

Speaking of headsets as some protection to the top of the head, headsets are highly recommended in general. Of course, the noise-canceling ones are the best. I learned to fly before the intercom system. The plane did not have a radio or even an electrical system, except for a small wood-prop-driven generator located between the main landing gear, so cockpit communication consisted of just yelling back and forth.

The normal conversation went as follows: The instructor in the back seat would yell something, and I would say, What? and then he would yell something again, and I would say, What? And that was the normal conversation in the cockpit once we were underway. Voice-activated intercom was a good invention.

When buying a headset, as in anything aviation-related, always purchase quality. I know it costs a lot, but it’s your hearing. The lightness of a headset is a significant factor as you’ll be wearing it for hours. In turbulence, its weight is increased, so the lighter, the better. Make sure you have the program setting inputted into the headset option switch whereby the headset will turn itself off after thirty minutes of inactivity. This obviously protects your batteries from dying if the noise-canceling function is not powered down after the flight.

If you stow the headset or leave it in the aircraft, don’t put it over the seat back, where the ear cushions are constantly being crushed and the clamping spring force is being sapped. Just put the ear cushions together, but don’t smash them, then retract the headset arms all the way down, rotate the microphone so it’s tucked up between the headset arms protecting the boom mic, and place the set in the aircraft where it is out of the sun or stow it back into its bag.

Once you take the headset out of the bag, zip the bag back up all the way; that way, anything in the bag stays in the bag. Always have everything in the cockpit stowed. You do not want anything floating around that could potentially jam a flight control.

When you plug the headset plugs into their receptacles for the intercom and radio, ensure the nuts around the plug holes are tight. If they’re loose and you can reach behind the backplate of the headset plug receptacle, hold the adapters steady back there as you rotate and tighten the nut. This will prevent the nut from unscrewing.

The rear of the plug-in is held to prevent them from twisting with the nut, which would cause the wires behind the connector to become too tight and break their soldered joint. If the backplate for the headset plugs is not mounted solidly, hold the backplate as you plug the plug back in just to relieve some stress on the backplate. And of course, always ensure that the headset plugs are fully seated. The plugs are different sizes, so they can only go one way. The large plug is for your ears, and the smaller one is for your mouth.

If you have copper-type plugs for your headset or hand microphone and they become a tarnished brown, indicating corrosion, the best way to remove that corrosion is a Scotch-Brite pad. I keep one in a headset bag. Just grasp the headset plugs with the pad and rotate the plug-in pin against the pad to scrub, and it will be bright and clean. This removes the tarnish, making reception much better on both the intercom and radio. If you have a hand microphone that starts acting up, besides taking it to the avionics shop, if it is a carbon-wafer-type mic, you can tap it to try to free the carbon wafers.

One of the better ways to wear the headset is to place it on top of your head, and once the cups are over your ears, if it’s that type, then make sure the adjustment is equal on both the left and right arms so the headset sits squarely on your head. Swivel the mic boom all the way down, to its lowest position, and then bend the boom arm to place the flat part of the microphone, not the edge, against the corner of your mouth, not in front of your mouth.

This way, the headset boom being down, then curved up, does not block any vision downward on that side. Also, the boom mic arm can’t change position in turbulence by falling down, as it is already at that stop. Having the mic at the corner of your mouth instead of in the center also reduces the popping noise when pronouncing Ps and reduces excited mouth moisture accumulation. Have the mic close enough to your lips that you can purse your lips (kiss) and touch it.

The boom mic has a foam anti-wind noise cover over the mic itself and is a good option. When using a hand microphone, also just touch the edge of the grill part to the corner of the mouth for the above reasons. Plus, if it is already touching your cheek, it can’t chip a tooth in turbulence.

If you have an ignition key switch for your aircraft, ensure the switch-retaining slip ring is tight, by twisting the knurled slip nut clockwise (righty tighty / lefty loosey). Try to have the absolute minimum number of keys on the key ring, as an excessive amount of keys adds weight to the ignition key cylinder itself, especially in turbulence. That weight is then increased with the stress of a wad of keys flipping around and could wear and eventually fail the switch. Even worse, in moderate or greater turbulence, if there was sufficient weight on the key ring, it could swing and cause the magneto switch itself to rotate and turn off or just down to one magneto from Both. If the former happened, there would be no doubt, as your engine dies instantly.

By the way, don’t just turn the switch back on. The actual, detailed technique for an ignition off-air restart is as follows: Leave the key off (you’re gliding now and got everyone’s attention). Place your mixture control to the idle cutoff (full aft) position, to allow all the gas to vent out of the engine. Merely turning the ignition key switch back on, with the mixture still in, will ignite a backfire (now you also have everyone’s attention on the ground) from the accumulated unburned gas in the exhaust system. This will force your muffler innards to go for fresh air.

The resulting explosion will be more impressive the longer it takes to discover that the switch is off and then instinctively turned back on. So don’t do that. Instead, place the mixture to off, throttle wide open for a couple of seconds, then reduce the power lever back to the high idle setting position (one-half inch). Now switch the magnetos to both, then advance the mixture slowly until a restart occurs. Leave it a tad lean and monitor the engine gauges for temperatures. As the engine warms up, advance the throttle and mixture back to the previous cruise power parameters. And you’re back in the game.

This procedure is necessary because when the engine died at cruise speed, it was still loaded with fuel and also lost all its internal heat and became the new poster child for extreme shock cooling (depending on the OAT [outside air temperature]). The above procedure allows the engine to warm up before returning to a high-power cruise output. Remember, if the propeller is already windmilling, never engage the starter.

First of all, there is no reason to (the prop is already rotating), and more importantly, if the engine doesn’t start and rev up, the starter will remain engaged. This is bad, because a hung starter increases propeller windmilling drag, which decreases glide ratio and range. Worse yet, the huge electrical draw/demand from the still-engaged starter can quickly overwhelm the aircraft’s electrical/charging system, resulting in a depleted battery, an extremely hot starter, and no way to lower electrically operated flaps, and the landing gear must now be lowered manually.

Another scenario is that the magneto switch position, because of the weighted key ring swaying around in turbulence, has rotated from Both to L or R, leaving you running on only a single mag. Unless you are really in tune with your airplane, the fact you are down to one mag may be something you miss. At cruise power, the loss of a magneto could be subtle enough, principally when being bounced around, to not even perceive it. This is why, regularly, you look at everything you own and check that all switches are in their proper positions. Once discovered, the mag switch can just be turned back to Both.

So for the key ring, it would be best to just have the ignition key and the door and maybe hangar key attached, and that is all. Once I have done the mag check, if there is a ring on the key, I flip the key ring itself over the key so the weight of the key ring holds the key to the Both position and also prevents them from jiggling around too much and being distracting.

Have a spare set of keys in your jacket or flight suit. To finish up on keys, train your crew (family) that when they hear We’re going flying, all respond by saying, Airplane keys! Bummer to arrive at the airfield and discover you forgot the keys (jeez!).

It is always a good idea to have one or two extra sets of batteries for whatever devices on board require them. These spare batteries can be stowed in the glove compartment (BTW, never have seen gloves in there) or headset bags. As we know, the definition of a pilot’s flashlight is a cylindrical object used for the storage of dead batteries.

Nine-volt batteries are very dangerous, as their electrical contacts are co-located and both can touch some metal object (like a headset bag zipper) and start a fire. These type of batteries come with a plastic electrode safety cover for this fire-hazard reason. Tape over this battery-safety snap strap to secure it in place as an extra precaution.

I do not recommend a kneeboard, unless you are flying an aircraft with a joystick instead of a yoke. Don’t have anything on you or mounted in the cockpit that would restrict full flight control movement. A small RON (remain overnight) bag containing toiletries (contact lens case, toothbrush, etc.) is good to have on board just in case and doesn’t weigh that much.

Have a pen or two on board to write down clearances and weather info. Don’t have a fountain/ink-cartridge-type pen, as they’ll burst at higher cabin altitudes and make a mess. A space pen is ideal, as they write on almost anything and are nitrogen charged and can write upside down. NASA spent a million dollars developing it; the Soviet cosmonauts just used a pencil. Also have a grease pencil, and you can just write something on the inside of a side window. One thing to record there would be the time of takeoff so you know exactly how long you’ve been up. This grease pencil writing will easily wipe off with your hand, a sleeve, or a cloth.

Speaking of grease, you always have some available for light lubrication purposes, and it is the nose oil (sebum) that is located on each side of your nasal crease where it joins the face. Draw/wipe your thumb and forefinger down these creases, and that grease can then be smeared on a zipper, a seat belt insert tab, a telescoping antenna, etc. for lubrication purposes. It can also be used to minimize scratches in optical surfaces due to its antireflective properties (fills in the scratch). Pencil lead can be used to lubricate zippers and keys, too, and doesn’t attract dust since this graphite contains no oil. Electrical and battery contacts can be cleaned by drawing on the corrosion with a pencil and then erasing off the lead and green stuff. One last, always-available lube option is the oil on the dipstick, which a drop or two may be employed to loosen a door hinge or whatever.

Reference the Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) or Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM); I assume it has been read, so now read it again and take note of all the various important airspeeds; e.g., Vr (rotation [raise nose]), Vx (best angle [most height / least distance]), Vy (best rate [most height / least time]), Va (maneuvering [can’t break]), Vg (best glide [most distance / least height loss]), Vlo (landing gear [up or down]), Vref (approach [over the fence]) and make a sign or plaque and affix it to your instrument panel in front of you so all the pertinent speeds of the aircraft are readily readable. Laminate this placard and mount it to a blank spot on the panel, where it can easily be seen. Do this for each aircraft you regularly fly.

Speaking of reading, know the applicable Federal Aviation Regulations, particularly the rules of the road contained in FAR Part 91. Learn the system; it shall set you free.

Tab/mark the page of the POH (paper clip, Post-it, etc.) that pertains to engine cruise performance power settings; normally, 75 percent of power is the maximum. It’s based on the pressure altitude and OAT conditions (density altitude). Once arriving at cruise altitude, you have a labeled ready reference to set the power within proper parameters, to ensure the engine is not being overboosted.

If your mission is a cross-country, as opposed to a local flight, and there is to be a landing at another location, ensure you have current charts and approach plates as required. Have the current charts folded as to how you will use them in flight. Normally, only two map panels are exposed, and if there are multiple charts required for the trip, have them folded and stacked on the floor, or wherever your charts go in your aircraft. Have the charts arranged in the order of their use. Whenever a new chart or book is acquired, then brand it. Write your initials on it so you can always identify your property.

The approach plates (if IFR) should be reviewed to ascertain which of the various approaches will be used at the destination based on the weather, and especially the winds. Tab/mark the one you think will be used, for quick reference. Also study the airport diagram, to identify the most direct taxi route to the desired FBO (fixed-base operator), especially if going to a busy airport.

This is in addition to the electronic data that is available in the cockpit nowadays. Don’t completely rely on the magic magenta line as, but for one solar flare or electromagnetic pulse (EMP), the electronic stuff will now display a big red X on the screen (if that). The charts and compass are much more difficult to turn off. Always have a plan B, or C, too, at least.

The way you can guarantee the sun will come out is to forget your sunglasses. As IFR (instrument flight) pilots, we can make the sun shine on an overcast day by climbing through it. Breaking out on top of an extremely bright undercast can snow-blind the human eye. You almost need glacier glasses (welding helmet).

I once had to fold up a navigation chart into a sun-hood for a passenger to block the painful light reflection, and made two small horizontal slits for him to see through (map hat). A vinyl see-through sunshade that clings to the bothersome window helps, too (have one or two). Laying a chart on your lap can keep the hot sun off your legs.

The sunglasses you purchase do not have to be expensive ones. The pilot-style sunglasses have obviously been designed for the purpose of aviating, and they would be the ideal shape. They droop down on your cheeks, allowing vision down, to the sides, and up, far more than regular glasses. The lens, as you look in the mirror buying sunglasses, should be dark enough to block you from seeing your eyes. If you can see your eyes, they’re not dark enough.

The ideal sunglasses are gradient driver’s or aviator-type glasses, where the top half is darker than the bottom half of the lens. This way, you can just cast your eyes down and look through the less-tinted glass to see the instrument panel more clearly. Do not wear polarized glasses (do use them by the water), as they may visually distort some windshield and instrument glass, causing a distraction and some loss of visual acuity.

The sunglasses that you wear should not have wide bows on the sides that could potentially act as blinders, like on a horse. They should be thin enough that you retain your range of vision, which in a human goes over 200 degrees (220 degrees) from side to side, and so it is very important to have that peripheral vision available and unblocked. The side bows should also be thin enough that they easily fit under your headset pads.

I actually pull my sunglasses out after I put my headset on and then sort of rest the earpieces of the sunglass bows on the top of the headset pad. This way, it does not break the seal of the headset around my ears, and since my glasses are not prescription, it does not matter that they are slightly tilted. If you have prescription glasses angled like that, then you would increase their magnification. Have a couple of extra cheap pairs of eyeshades stowed in the glove compartment for passengers who may need them.

Always dress appropriately for the season. There is no guarantee you will not spend the night on some hilltop. Always try to wear socks and pants, instead of shorts and sandals, if at all possible. For footwear, I wear cowboy or flying boots that are flexible enough for me to be